2023 年 11 巻 p. 137-155
Radiofrequency radiation effects the living things including humans and plants, have recently gained considerable attention. An important factor in the expansion of radiofrequency radiations is the globalization of telecommunications networks. Mobile phone towers in Pakistan have multiplied by a large number in the last few years. Increases in mobile tower construction and tower sharing pose a threat to local flora and fauna in both urban and rural locations. Few scientists searched; how mobile phone emitted radiations affect the yield of few crops. Research on how mobile radiofrequency radiations affect molecular structure, plant cell biology, ecology and biochemical composition is compiled in the current article. Furthermore, the present study sheds light on how electromagnetic radiation from 2G and 3G cells phone affects the germination process of important staple crops. New research reveals how radiofrequency radiation affects plant ecosystems’ morphological and physiological properties. This review also emphasizes the importance of further collective and field-based empirical studies to determine the effect of mobile phone radiations on numerous plant species, which is necessary for developing effective preventative and mitigating measures.
In today’s modern world, most people rely on their mobile phones as their primary means of communication with others. One of the numerous benefits of owning a mobile phone is the convenience it provides for maintaining personal and professional relationships regardless of location. Further, the 3G phone provides data, music, games, video, audio, and internet access via wireless application protocol for its users. The proliferation of cell phone usage has altered the face of global communication forever [1]. Mobile phones are electrical gadgets that use radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMRs) in order to function. The number of individuals who possess mobile phones and the number of locations where they may be used have both exploded since the first phones appeared in the 1980s. According to Ericson’s assessment on the future of mobile subscriptions, there are now 8.4 billion users around the globe, with that number expected to rise to 9.2 billion by 2028 [2]. Although there are many benefits to using a mobile phone, there are also considerable drawbacks.
Increases in mobile phone use have been accompanied by increased awareness of the potential dangers posed by the electromagnetic fields emitted by nearby cell towers. The mobile phone and base station are two-way radios frequency waves. Radio waves, with an electromagnetic frequency range of 3 kilohertz to 300 gigahertz, are classified as low-frequency, non-ionizing radiations [3] as shown in Figure 1. Television systems, radio transmitters, and radars are only a few of the many examples of RF-EMRs. In addition, nowadays, in developing and developed countries, mobile operators shared towers have been installed in which many cellular service providers share a single tower in order to install high-gain sector antennas for up to 6 operators. Further investigation into the topic indicated that when exposed to many frequency fields at once, the total radiation must be considered since the radiation density level may easily exceed the permitted values by a large margin [4]. Therefore, it is anticipated that the growing prevalence of mobile phone tower sharing would enhance plant sensitivity to such radiations.
Figure 1: Spectrum distribution by frequency, wavelength, and product. This figure has been regenerated for current manuscript and the contents were copied from the source: https://www.mobilesafety.com.au/cell-phone-radiation/
The radio frequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) emitted by a mobile phone and other electronic devices is actively absorbed by a living system. Furthermore, toxic chemicals like arsenic, copper, cadmium, zinc, lithium, mercury, and lead have been found in mobile phone components. Animal studies have shown that EMFs can influence enzyme activity and gene expression [5] as well as affect cellular protein synthesis. Lipid peroxidation, heat shock proteins, and an antioxidant response are all triggered in human cells by the RF-EMFs. After extensive study, no clear findings have been made on the dangers of mobile phone radiation to human health. Mobile phone components and their usage has been linked to an increased risk of cancer, as well as a variety of neurological, reproductive, and developmental issues, because of the presence of a family of chemicals known as persistent bio-accumulative toxins (PBTS) [6]. Velmurugan [7] and Rakovi [8] provided thorough descriptions of the mental and physical risks associated with mobile phone manufacturing. Mobile phone use has been related to brain damage and dizziness. Mobile phone radiation may also damage your hearing. Almost all research has focused on the possible negative impacts of mobile phones, such as cancer, vehicle accidents, health effects, and electromagnetic interference, as the World Health Organization observed in 2020.
It is confirmed that plants absorb radiofrequency radiations (RFRs) due to the fact that they scatter electromagnetic waves up to 2 GHz frequency [9]. However, the impact of these radiations on plants has received far less consideration. Scientists from universities’ telecommunication engineering departments conducted research on vegetables, plants, and fruits exposed to cell phone radiation. Almost 50 chili plants were tested after exposure to mobile phone radiation from the seed to the maturity stage. They concluded that, in comparison to normal plants, their plants were wrinkled and looked dull. The scientists from Calcutta University, find out in their experiment, plants have been affected by mobile phone radiation. However, researchers at Panjab University have uncovered concrete evidence of the harmful impacts of EMRs on agricultural plants. The literature on the impact of RFRs on plant morphology and physiology is severely lacking in several key areas. For instance, most research on RFRs has involved exposures of only a few minutes to a few hours. Prolonged contact, as in the case of persons or plants who are in close proximity to antennas or other transmission equipment, has not been well studied, especially when considering exposures lasting months or years. Consequently, we must ask, what are the consequences of prolonged contact of mobile phones emitted radiation to plants, humans, animals, and the marine environment? Does prolonged exposure alter the plant morphology differently than shorter periods? Do the results build up over time? It appears that there may be cumulative consequences.
Toxic compounds might be released or exposed when mobile phones break down in landfills, potentially contaminating the ground and water supply. The presence of hazardous metals in liquid crystal displays in different forms of WEEE (waste electrical and electronic equipment) was studied by Savvilotidou [10] in an analysis of mobile phones. Kang [11] studied the effects of lithium batteries and concluded that they might have serious consequences for the environment and human health.
1.1 Mobile phones and towers use radiofrequency energyCell phone radiation is also known as radio frequency energy. Radiation may either be ionizing or non-ionizing, and both are existing in the environment. By removing electrons from atoms and molecules, ionizing radiation may cause harm to a wide variety of substances, including air, water, and biological tissues. When comparing low- and high-energy radiation, low-energy non-ionizing radiation is preferable. These substances are not resistant to the penetration of ionizing radiation. Mobile phone use results in the emission of low levels of non-ionizing radiation. The RFRs may be called radio waves or microwaves are emitted by the antennas of mobile phones and smartphones; the body or any object nearest to the antenna may absorb this energy and convert it to heat [12]. The reactor’s waste heat has the potential to alter the local water temperature, which might have a negative impact on the coastal ecosystem. Radiation from cell phone antennas and cell phone towers has been the subject of study since at least the 1990s. Mobile phone networks employ a variety of RFR bands, some of which overlap with the microwave spectrum. Other digital wireless systems, such as data communication networks emit comparable radiation.
When put in context with other commercial applications of radiofrequency energy, cell towers are seen as relatively low-power facilities. The RFRs are emitted by many different wireless technologies, including emergency response networks (ERP), satellite communications, federal homeland security systems, radio, police, and military radar, television, and many more. Depending on the service and the number of providers sharing a tower, cellular services might need anywhere from tens to hundreds of watts of ERP per channel. It doesn’t matter what purpose RFRs are put to, once emitted it travels through space at the speed of light and oscillates as it spreads [13]. The frequency of an oscillating wave is defined by the number of cycles it undergoes in one second. The RFRs are extremely extensive, and it is located entirely within the nonionizing bands of the electromagnetic spectrum as shown in Figure 1. All of these connections involve the exchange of energy in some way. However, the amount of energy absorbed by a living organism’s body is more important than the total amount of energy in the universe when considering the biological impacts. There is a dearth of understanding of the relationship between the origin of radiation and its effects on people, animals, and humans [14]. Furthermore, various types of radiation produced from various sources affect plants in several ways and there is a still need for much more study to discuss all these issues. For example, FM radio operates on a frequency range of 76 to 108 MHz, while AM radio operates in the range of 540 to 1600 kHz [15]. Research is still needed to confirm the aforementioned facts about the living systems, environment, and marine ecosystem.
1.2 Phone technologyAny device that may be easily transported from one location to another is considered mobile technology. It is made up of various computing gadgets, networks, and mobile two-way communication tools. These new devices are the newest in a long series of technological advancements that also include fax machines, computers, mobile phones (flip phones), the global positioning system, navigators, and many more. The broad use of mobile technology is only going to grow. Already more than 3 billion people across the globe use smartphones, and that figure is expected to rise to 1.87 billion by 2022 as the global mobile workforce expands. There has been a remarkable development in mobile phone technology over the last two decades. In the middle of the 1980s, the first wireless networks began operating, using analog transmissions between 850 and 900 MHz. Nowadays, mobile service providers use higher frequency radiation in the latest cell phones as shown in Figure 2. Longer wavelengths meant that facilities were required to be spaced out by an average of 10 kilometers [16]. Then, in the late 1990s, digital personal communications systems (PCS) emerged, which transmitted their signals digitally over frequencies closer to 1900 GHz. With shorter wavelengths and stricter exposure limitations, PCS systems need infrastructure every 1.3 to 5.1 miles [16]. To convey more than simply speech, digital signals use a binary system that stimulates a wave that can split any frequency in various ways. A variety of cellular phone networks, including 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G, are currently in operation. The radiation emitted by cell phones is detrimental to living things of all kinds. Radiation from mobile phones has been proven to cause cancer in humans. In addition, they have a negative impact on plant life [17].
Figure 2: Different mobile service providers using higher radiation day by day. The highest value of the latest phones has been taken from the websites of mobile service providers.
Understanding the nature of radiation and how it interacts with matter is essential before discussing its impact on plant life. There are other sources of radiation besides the Sun, such as mobile phones and TVs. Radiation is not always dangerous to be around. Radiation may be highly dangerous, depending on the kind and the amount of time spent exposed to it. High-energy ionizing radiation has the potential to severely harm biological organisms. Particles or waves may be used to transmit energy in the form of radiation. Ecological masking occurred at radiation doses between 5 and 400 rad/year [18], indicating that negative impacts on individual species were observed without any changes to population levels or ecosystems. Communities and populations were harmed if yearly exposures were more than 400 rad. This suggests that its interaction with an atom might result in a change in the atom’s electrical charge. This might potentially change DNA by causing nuclear damage in severe circumstances. If a living thing’s DNA has been altered, it might develop harmful mutations. Even without direct contact with radiation or radioactive materials, the presence of a reactor might have a harmful effect on the plant life in the surrounding area.
Various studies showed the negative effects of RFRs on the normal functioning of plant cells, enzymes, and molecules. As a result, several abnormalities have been observed i.e., transcriptional alteration, homeostatic machinery disturbance, changes in heat shock proteins, lipid domain decay, irreversible changes in structure and functioning of acetylcholine esterase, increased level of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in erythrocytes and changes in various proteins phosphorylation. These radiations have significant effects on the proper physiological functioning of birds and bees hindering their pollination capability, reproduction, and navigation. Hence natural plant breeding is also affected by these pollinators. Plants, crops, and vegetables grown in close proximity to cell towers are negatively affected by the radiations, as well as surrounding humans, animals, and amphibians, according to a study on cell tower radiations [19]. This includes stunted growth and development of agricultural products, and plants, as well as increased vulnerability of trees to diseases, and problems with seed germination and root formation. This was supported by a geoinformation technology investigation of the impacts of telecom electromagnetic radiations on the ecosystem of the region under study [20]. Numerous types of research have been performed to discover whether or not RFRs have a direct impact on plants, in addition to this indirect effect. Research of this kind is essential since alterations to plant life will have effects across the food web. After just 2.5 years, fruit-bearing trees in an area dense with cell towers showed a considerable drop in fruit output, according to recent research [21]. These findings highlight the pressing need for further scientific data to quantify the negative impacts of mobile phone radiation on plant growth, and development. More damage from RFRs may be done to plants in areas with a high density of cell phone towers. We need a coordinated study in this area to get an accurate evaluation of the effects.
2.1 Mobile phone radiation affects marine and environmental systemsThe production of mobile or cell phone components such as printed circuit boards, liquid crystal displays, keypads, plastic shells, batteries, and chargers makes use of heavy metals like cadmium, lead, lithium, mercury, and brominated flame retardants. The high toxicity of these compounds has a devastating effect on the natural world. When new models come out a year, it’s wasteful, and damaging to the environment to continually buy new phones. In developing countries, the incorrect disposal of old mobile phones has been linked to major health repercussions and environmental degradation, as pointed out by Robinson [22] and Li [23]. Pollution of land, sea, and wildlife was caused by mobile recycling facilities. In the case of cadmium, the loss of just one phone’s battery may taint 600,000 liters of water. More than 7,000 tonnes of toxic cell phone components (i.e., more than 80 percent hazardous) were deposited in landfills by 2012 due to the lack of a competent recycles and reuse program, as reported by Deloitte [24]. Consequences for the environment and all life on earth will be severe if contamination occurs. Tóth [25] looked at how people are using their mobile devices to collect data on their health and the environment. The disposal of a cell phone’s unused components into the environment can have far-reaching effects on the biota, including humans, animals, plants, and the landscape as a whole [26]. When mobile phones are recycled carelessly, semiprecious metals like copper are removed, resulting in the release of toxicants into the groundwater below and the air above [27]. Lead, a possible carcinogen, can accumulate in the environment, according to Lakshmi and Nagan [28] and this can have both acute and chronic effects on microorganisms, animals, and humans. Similarly, mercury can be transformed into methylated mercury in water, which then contaminates food and causes brain damage, as noted by the same author. Lithium’s high reactivity means it can contaminate water when left in the environment. Therefore, these compounds may pose a huge environmental problem by leaching from decomposing garbage in landfills into groundwater, poisoning the soil, and ultimately making their way into the food chain.
2.2 Mobile phone radiation affects animalsStudying the effects of mobile phone radiation on rats has helped scientists better comprehend the dangers to human health [29]. After being exposed to radiation, the brains of rats showed increased oxidative stress and DNA damage [30]. Rat brain protein or RNA levels may also be affected by radiation exposure [31]. One of the ways in which tiny animals vary from humans is in terms of skull thickness, which may affect radiation absorption. They found that the tissues most visibly affected by mobile phone radiation were the liver and lungs, with the brain, kidneys, and stomach all suffering harm. The RF-EMR from mobile phones has been found in animal experiments to lower sperm density and motility [32]. Results from rat research show that exposure to RF-EMFs greatly increases gliomas and Schwannomas of the heart, according to the National Toxicology Program and the Ramazzini Institute. Recent research has linked mobile phone RF-EMFs exposure to detrimental effects on cellular function in animals and children’s brain, and behavioral development. The constant exposure site of habitual mobile phone usage has been linked to an elevated risk of glioma, according to case-control epidemiological studies [33]. These findings were used to create public health recommendations for mobile phone usage. Moreover, heterogeneity analysis was constrained by the restricted number of papers that could be analyzed. Both groups of researchers have suggested that the effects of mobile phone RF-EMR on animals need more study, based on their preliminary results and hypotheses. Collectively, further research is needed to determine whether or not mobile phone RF-EMR exposure has any influence on fertility, sperm quality, reproduction, animal health, and other effects.
2.3 Effects of mobile phone emitted radiations on humans’ healthHigh-toxic chemicals emitted by mobile phones have been linked to health risks for humans. Concerns regarding possible health risks associated with 3G smartphone usage were investigated by Cocosila [34]. According to research conducted by Barnett et al. [35], the majority of people choose to disregard health warnings about mobile phones, even when they are contained in official Department of Health pamphlets. Mobile phone parts are made of different heavy metals. According to Lakshmi and Nagan [36], cadmium is harmful to the gastrointestinal tract, the kidneys, the respiratory system, the cardiovascular system, and the endocrine system, and it may induce lung and prostate cancer. Lead poisoning is dangerous because it affects the kidneys, the blood, and the neurological and peripheral systems. The risk of cancer in the lymph and digestive systems may be elevated by brominated flame retardants. An increase in mobile phone use has been linked to sleep disruptions and depressive symptoms in both men and women at 1-year follow-up. There is solid evidence showing that mobile phone radiation is very harmful to human health, particularly to the brain [37]. The strength of a mobile phone’s frequency determines how hazardous electromagnetic fields are to a human body. In a study, Ayhualem et al. [38] found that students who used their phones nonstop for long periods had health problems including headaches, neck discomfort, limb pain, back pain, red eyes, and tinnitus. Furthermore, depression, melancholy, anger, headaches, anxiety, forgetfulness, and insomnia are just some of the neurological symptoms that may result from excessive mobile phone usage. Hearing loss may be caused by exposure to loud music or electromagnetic radiation from mobile phones. Additionally, Miller [39] has mentioned on his website that cell phone radiation may play a significant role in the increasing prevalence of serious problems such as attention and hearing deficits, autism, behavioral changes, insomnia, tinnitus, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and a wide array of nervous system disturbances. Many researchers have come to the following conclusion about the dangers of using mobile phones to your health: Aghav [40] expressed concern that the vast majority of people did not understand the danger that constant radiation emission posed to their health. In recent years, worries have grown about the potential risks that come with this new technology. Researchers’ attention has shifted to the effects of cellphone radiation on people’s health.
2.4 Health statement concerning cell phonesThis article not only highlights the dangers of mobile phone radiation to human health but also the rise in car accidents caused by the use of mobile phones. Inattentive drivers and pedestrians using mobile devices distract them from the road. The risk of an accident increases when drivers are engaged in other activities, such as talking, texting, or surfing the web. Teenagers face unique risks from cell phone usage behind the wheel. Most newly licensed adolescent motorists agree to participate in some sort of distracted driving activity, most often texting or conversing on a mobile phone. According to the research of Choudhary et al. [41], accidents caused by drivers who were texting or talking on their phones were a common occurrence on American roads in 2013. According to a study conducted by Choudhary et al. [41], 36% of all car accidents can be attributed to drivers talking on their phones. That’s why fighting these problems requires sustainability research.
2.5 Effects of electromagnetic field radiations on plant growthAnimals, people, and microbes have all been the subjects of substantial research into the effects of EMFs, but plants have received very less attention. Hart and Marino [42] conducted a study of flora around high-voltage transmission lines and found altered patterns of plant growth. Similarly, fields near high-tension lines showed a decrease in wheat and maize output, but fields with a 28.5 KV m2 electric field showed a boost in rice plant growth [43]. While the ratio of divalent to monovalent cations did not alter. Tafforeau et al. [44] found that exposure to 900 MHz for 2 hours induced epidermal meristems and decreased Ca2+, Na+, and K+ levels.
Exposure of Lemna minor to 900 MHz for 2 hours was found to limit growth, but exposure to 400 MHz had no effect [45]. Subsequently, it was shown that exposing Lemna minor to RF-EMFs (400 and 900 MHz) for 2 h caused significant changes in lipid peroxidation, H2O2 concentration, and activity of antioxidative enzymes, suggesting that EMFs induce oxidative stress in plants [45]. Biologists and environmentalists are concerned about the consequences of EMFs, yet there is a paucity of research on the topic of how EMFs, and mobile phones in particular, affect early plant development and the biochemical changes that accompany it. As a result, it is essential to conduct a comprehensive and methodical investigation of the mechanism of action of EMFs in plants. To further our understanding of how mobile phones impede early plant growth, we also looked at the impact of cell phone radiation on biomolecules and a few essential enzyme functions [43].
As with humans, plants are also vulnerable to the side effects of the widespread usage of wireless devices like mobile phones. The research team came to the conclusion that metabolic alterations induced by mobile phone EMFs stunted the early development of V. radiata seedlings. In a sealed container with two mobile phones in constant conversation mode, the researchers grew moong dal (Phaseolus aureus) seeds [45]. The unexpected findings suggested that mobile phone radiation stifled the pulse’s germination and early development. When compared to unsaturated seeds, those exposed to mobile phone radiation for two and four hours had a reduction in germination of 18 and 30 percent, respectively.
2.6 Effects of radiofrequency radiations on morphological and physiological growthMultiple research teams have used plant models to examine the effects of RF-EMFs on plant physiology, agronomic parameters, and soil characteristics (Figure 3). Furthermore, other factors such as climatic factors, environmental factors, and anthropogenic activities significantly contribute to soil deterioration and put pressure on scientists and researchers to adopt and invent technology for their solution in order to prevent nations from hunger [45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53]. For instance, Physiological and morphological changes in plants have been linked to mobile phone radiation, according to research done by Halgamuge [54]. This study evaluated data from 45 scholarly journals with observations. They concluded that various radiation frequencies have severe detrimental effects on plants’ biochemical, physiological and morphological parameters of different species. It has been found that pheno-deviants and varying degrees of asymmetry are more common in plants and animals that are exposed to high levels of radiation in their surroundings. Yushkova [55] found that the amount of developmental instability in all cases was higher in Chernobyl than in less contaminated (control) areas. Variations in the length of right and left morphological features, as well as variations in the number of leaflets on leaves on the right and left side of the symmetry axis noted by Zakharov and Krysanov [56]. Møller and Mousseau [57] demonstrated that they were linked to lower rates of survival and reproduction in other organisms.
Figure 3: Radiofrequency radiation affects plant morphology and biochemistry.
Seedling germination patterns have been the primary focus of research into the effects of RF-EMFs on plants. Despite having no impact on germination, exposure to mobile phone EMFs at 1800 MHz dramatically inhibited root growth in a study of Lens culinaris seeds [58]. This was thought to have resulted from oxidative stress on the latent seeds. Radiation at 105 GHz has been shown to trigger epidermal meristems and reduce Ca2+, Na+, and K+ concentrations in plants after just 2 hours of exposure, which might have significant consequences for osmotic balance and the activity of ion gated channels and transporters [59]. Research into the influence of electromagnetic fields on the germination of winter wheat, maize, and amaranth yielded some intriguing findings. Results varied with the time frame for which the seeds were left out in the radiation exposure and the amount of moisture they contained. After 5–15 minutes of contact, seed germination was boosted, but after prolonged periods of exposure, germination was substantially reduced (40–60 min). Low germination rates were also seen in pre-soaked seeds compared to dry seeds. This is because bound water reacts with oxygen in the presence of EMFs to produce hydrogen peroxide, which then blocks germination in the seed [60]. Two experiments were performed with the same conditions but the different sources of RFRs including 2G (Nokia 2690) and 3G technology (Samsung GT B7722). The seeds were radiated several times (half an hour, an hour, two hours, four hours, and eight hours) to determine their reaction. After waiting at least 72 hours for germination, the seeds were tested to examine how radiation affected the seedlings in comparison to the control group. They concluded that 2G technology has less exposure to morphological and biochemical parameters in comparison to 3G technology. The impact of these radiations on the plants was investigated in recent research. Growth and metabolic alterations in young Pisum sativum (pea) and Trigonella foenumgraecum seedlings were found to be influenced by mobile phone radiation (Fenugreek) [61]. Cell phone radiation has been shown to significantly reduce the germination rate, the length of seedlings, and the number of proteins, lipids, and Guaiacol in the seeds compared to the control seeds. For the research, plants were exposed to one of five different conditions for half an hour, one hour, two hours, four hours, or eight hours. Based on the results, it seems that plant growth and nodule development are negatively impacted by mobile phone radiation.
2.8 Shoot and root developmentResearchers found that 10 minutes of exposure to 900 MHz RF-EMFs significantly increased the accumulation of stress-related changes in tomato plants [62]. Scientists found that soy (Glycine max) seedlings exposed to 900 MHz GSM radiation at high amplitudes (41 V/m) had stunted epicotyl development and root outgrowth, whereas soy exposed to 900 MHz GSM radiation at low amplitudes (5.7 V/m) experienced stunted hypocotyl outgrowth. Research shows that the harmful effects of mobile phone radiations rely on factors such as electric field strengths and amplitude modulation patterns. Root cells of Allium cepa were tested for their reactions of EMF between 400 and 900 MHz at 41 and 120 V/m [63]. Mitotic abnormalities such as lagging chromosomes, vagrants, disordered anaphase, and chromosomal stickiness were detected in root cells under environmental stress and were linked to alterations in mitotic spindle formation in this research. Vacuolization, often seen in the cytoplasm of dying cells, was also shown to be in abundance in root cells. Roots of V. radiata have been studied again, and the results revealed that exposure to mobile phone radiation led to stress conditions that accelerated hydrolysis and decreased protein and carbohydrate concentrations in root tissues [64]. It was also hypothesized that the short system would be more vulnerable to the effects of EMF because of its proximity to the source. The findings of a study on tomato plants [65], corroborated this, showing that 30 minutes of exposure to 900 MHz EMF caused a 30% decrease in ATP content in leaves (which produce an abundant amount of ATP) and a 23% decrease in AEC (adenylate energy change) in actively growing above-ground plant parts. Exposure to RF-EMFs has been shown to have deleterious effects on the germination of seeds and the growth of their root systems, as well as other physiological processes in plants. Radiation’s impact on the relationship between plants and microbes.
2.9 Physiological effectsThe chlorophyll concentration decreased as the exposure period increased, suggesting that prolonged exposure is harmful to plant chlorophyll contents (Figure 4). Exposure of maize seedlings to 1800 MHz (power density 332 to 10.36 mW/m2) electromagnetic fields for 4 hours dramatically reduced root, coleoptile growth, and chlorophyll content, according to the research [66]. Reduced biosynthesis or accelerated pigment degradation likely accounted for the reduction in chlorophyll content found under salt, drought, and temperature conditions [67]. There was a report that exposing Vigna radiata seeds to electromagnetic fields from mobile phones (power density 8.55 W/cm2, 900 MHz) for 2 hours or longer period, and found significantly slowed down their germination rates for both the radical and plumule stages of development [68]. In addition to causing oxidative stress and cellular damage, RFR exposure to V. radiata increased lipid peroxidation, hydrogen peroxide buildup, and root oxidisability. The length, dry weight, protein, and carbohydrate contents of V. radiata seedlings were considerably decreased after exposure to 8.55 W/cm2 EMFs for 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 hours [69]. Dry weight was observed to be reduced by 43%, while radical and plumule lengths were reduced by 59% and 47%, respectively, after just 1 hour of exposure to RF-EMFs. Several studies [70] confirm that plants under stress from electromagnetic fields release free radicals and signal molecules, which then have an influence on the plant’s physiology. The observed decrease in concentration was linked to the rapid breakdown of carbohydrates and proteins during stress. Due to oxidative stress, EMF-exposed radicles showed increased activity of some enzymes, such as proteases, a-amylase, -amylase, polyphenoloxidases, and peroxidases. Comparable increases in amylase, and invertase activity and decreases in starch phosphorylase activity were seen in maize seedlings exposed to 1800 MHz EMF for extended durations. The results reveal that exposure to mobile phone RF-EMFs causes stress, which in turn causes a hyperaccumulation of stress-related enzymes above and above what would be considered normal levels in plants.
It is important to take into account the potential effects of RF-EMFs on healthy plants before erecting mobile phone towers [71], given the current in vitro scientific evidence of the harmful effects of RF-EMFs on plant growth and development. Notwithstanding the fact that plants are more vulnerable to EMFs than mammals due to their high surface to volume ratio [56], only preliminary studies have been conducted on this topic. Many agricultural products have been shown to have dielectric properties, supported by empirical data. The monetary value of the specific absorption rate (SAR) has also been calculated for occupational and public exposure levels at 2.4 GHz. Coconut trees have also been subjected to controlled and public tests to determine the SAR of 900–2400 MHz. According to the study, the SAR value of plants increased noticeably when fruit shape changed from spherical to more accurate, mostly as a consequence of the lower mass of the latter. Hence, variations in plant structure and shifts in the biological content of plant tissues impact the pace at which the plant body absorbs energy. Nizhny Novgorod researchers have hypothesized that ionizing radiation adversely affects living things by interfering with their physiological processes [72]. This form of dysregulation seems to come from cross-talk across plant signaling systems such as ROS, calcium, hormone, and electrical [73].
Figure 4: Detrimental impacts of radiations on plant physiology. This figure has been regenerated for the current manuscript and the contents were copied from the source: https://phys.org/news/2019-04-soil-remediation-interplanetary-flights.html
In India, the majority of people use cell phones as their primary means of contact. Radiation from mobile phones is detrimental to living things of all kinds. There are two basic categories here: thermal and non-thermal. Radiation’s heat is very much like that of a microwave. Although the effects of non-thermal radiation on plants and animals have not been thoroughly studied, it is assumed that they are more damaging than thermal radiation. Microwave radiation is released by the cell phone [74]. A mobile phone’s transmission power can range from 1 to 2 watts between 824 and 1780 MHz. Nitrogen has an important role in the growth and metabolism of all living things, including humans. Nitrogen is a vital part of nucleic acid and consequently, plants are unable to uptake nitrogen from the air due to the effect of radiation. Because of their unique symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium bacteria, legumes are the only plants capable of fixing nitrogen. As a result of the construction of cell phone towers and other structures in and around agricultural fields, there is now widespread damage to the crops [75]. The impact of these radiations on the plants was investigated in recent research. Growth and metabolic alterations in young Pisum sativum (pea) and Trigonella foenumgraecum seedlings were found to be influenced by mobile phone radiation (Fenugreek). If plants are exposed to radiation, it might either hasten or inhibit their development. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to provide evidence that mobile phones’ microwave radiation is harmful to leguminous plants like peas and fenugreek.
2.11 Radiation supports the mutation rate and genetic changes in plantsIonizing radiation is characterized by increased mutation rates. Several studies [74] have found elevated mutation rates in plants. Dosage rates from natural sources have been reported to be as high as 200 mGy/yr, while the vast majority are far lower since it suggests that even extremely low dose rates can have significant ramifications for organismal functioning. Subsequently, Moller and Mousseau [48] conducted a meta-analysis, which was a comprehensive evaluation of all available experimental studies of radiation effects on organisms surviving in the presence of radio-contaminants from the Chernobyl tragedy. Natural high radiation areas showed fewer differences in impact size across plants and animals than those seen in the examination of human-made high radiation areas [75], both analyses demonstrated that plants showed significantly higher effect. There is little evidence to suggest that higher organisms (including plants) show significant genetically based adaptive responses to ionizing radiation in the Chernobyl region [48]. The large variation in impact sizes might be explained by the fact that species vary in their radiation resistance owing to physiological systems, DNA repair capabilities, and other factors including life history and method of reproduction. Variations in genome size and ploidy status may also have a role. Further investigation is needed into these matters. Radiation rates ranging from 0.01 to 9.30 mGy/yr have been shown to cause mutations in microsatellites, as well as disruptions in pollen production, spore development, cell division, chromosome segregation, point mutations, null mutations, duplications, allozyme mutations, and cell division.
2.12 Radiation affects the reproduction system in plantsReproduction in plants could be stunted if ionizing radiation affects sexual organs or gametes. This may induce a delay in phenology and, therefore, reproduction. Radiation may also influence the disparity between the number of buds and the number of flowers, with a larger number of blooms indicating a later reproduction period. Plant growth may be inhibited by radiation, resulting in fewer blossoms available to be pollinated. Reproductive output, including seed set, may be affected by the number and size of blooms. In order to determine whether ionizing radiation impacts plant growth, we have recorded these reproductive factors in 73 species of flowering plants in Chernobyl and Fukushima.
Pollen viability, and therefore reproductive production, may also be impacted by ionizing radiation. For 109,000 pollen grains across 675 pollen samples representing 111 plant species at Chernobyl, Moller [76] demonstrated a negative connection between pollen viability and radiation. The correlation between radiation and cell survival was only moderately affected by other factors, such as ploidy or the number of nucleated cells. Researchers, Moller and Mousseau [74] found that the germination rate of seeds from locations more contaminated with radioactive fallout was lower when the seeds were planted in a non-contaminated community garden. Genome size, chromosomal number, ploidy, and pollination by bi- and trinucleate pollen grains had no significant effects, according to research by Moller and Mousseau [76]. Finally, greater ionizing radiation levels were associated with a decrease in seed weight. While polyploid species are more resistant to radiation damage due to gene redundancy.
2.13 Radiation affects the plant flowering stageHerbivores, parasites, decomposers, and pollinators are just few of the plant’s animal partners. For this reason, it is possible that these various taxa contribute to shifts in the number of plant species, the variety of plant species, the rates at which plant species grow, and the patterns in the lifespans of plant species. Herbivore densities vary greatly along radiation gradients within the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone [77]. The abundance of Myodes glareolus depends on the availability of light and the presence of prey, which may include moose (Alces alces), bank voles (Microtus phago), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), or roe deer (Cervus elaphus). Bank vole populations are affected not just by the relationship between food and radiation but also by the availability of food and, by extension, and vegetation [78]. The effects of background radiation and herbivores on plant abundance remain to be determined. Being both decomposers and parasites, fungi play crucial functions in ecosystems. Pollinators spread Microbotryum fungus to the flowers of caryophyllaceous plants, where they sterilize the blooms and reduce the host plants’ reproductive output [79]. In fact, an increase in radiation levels leads to a decline in butterfly populations, and vice versa for the another smut. This statistical interaction sheds light on a previously unknown relationship between the availability of butterflies and the impact of radiation on the propagation of the smut fungus. Mutation rates found in later molecular analyses did not seem to be affected by radiation. In fact, studies have demonstrated that contaminated habitats are more likely to exhibit purifying selection than unpolluted ones. Plant-microbe interactions have been proven to have a major impact on plant health [80] and ecological prosperity. Little is known about how these interactions could be impacted in a radioactive situation, although they may be having major implications on plant development due to the effects of radiation on breakdown [81].
2.14 Effects of radiations on plant ecosystemAs a result of the nuclear tragedy, trees and grasses have become the main forms of cover in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was calculated using satellite imagery and ground-based measurements of ambient radiation by Santos et al. [82]. The relationship between NDVI and background radiation was determined using remote sensing and Landsat satellite photos collected over a number of years. Generalized Additive Models and analysis of variance were used to examine the connection between the NDVI and the ambient radiation readings. Over the years following the event in 1986, NDVI has increased despite changes in surrounding radiation levels. Despite the harmful effects of radiation on plants, the exclusion zone has become greener as a result of land abandonment and fewer animals. Grass and shrub/tree species including Scot’s pine and silver birch Betula pendula now predominate in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. Abandoned farm land was found to have a favourable influence on the population of several plant species, according to a study by Santos et al. [82], but exposure to ionizing radiation had a detrimental effect. At the end of the day, Santos et al. [82] demonstrated that a certain amount of ionizing radiation has a detrimental effect on the plant life. This shows that ionizing radiation reduces the population of some tree species while having no effect on others. Certain tree species have seen a slightly rise in population while blooming plants have seen a significant decline. The scientist has conducted a survey of plant communities over 80 locations in Chernobyl, including both uncontaminated control regions and contaminated areas with varied levels of contamination. Plants and insects have profound interactions that shape plant productivity, recruitment, and community composition [74]. The first research was conducted in 2003, and the same sites have been revisited in 2018. This in-depth research on the effect of radiation on plant communities will pave the way for future evaluations of plant communities. Furthermore, they will enable researchers to evaluate the short and long-term impacts of ionising radiation.
2.15 Effects of radiations on soil microbial systemMobile phone RFR has a significant impact on the microorganisms in soil as well as plants. The effects of RFR from cellular base stations on microbial diversity and antibiotic resistance were recently reported. Non-sporulating, gram-negative bacteria are reported to develop spores in response to radiation exposure in order to protect their DNA. Worries were raised, however, when it was discovered that RFR from telecommunication base stations had a negative impact on symbiotic and free-living beneficial groups of bacteria (such as Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Azospirillum, etc.). Microbial community composition and decomposition in soils are affected by exposure to radiation, which is non-ionizing but may still induce oxidative stress and DNA damage [81] indicating that resistance to harmful radiation is not universal. A change in nitrogen-fixing bacteria is predicted to reduce soil fertility and productivity, hence this topic warrants special attention. There’s a special symbiotic relationship between plants and soil microorganisms, and any disruption to that might stunt plant growth in affected soils. Further study is needed to help us learn more about this topic and understand it in greater depth.
In light of the aforementioned, sustainable solutions are required to guide and build proactive consumer intents toward mobile phone usage that poses minimal dangers to health and the environment. Manufacturers should provide secure methods at affordable prices that influence customer purchase behavior and customer retention of mobiles, all while boosting consumer awareness of the risks associated with mobile phone use. Companies need to find and execute sustainable solutions to lessen mobile phone use’s risks, while also raising the bar on service quality and regaining consumers’ trust. The research shows that in order to reduce the many negative effects of mobile phones, governments and the mobile industry must work together to strengthen norms and legislation relevant to the design, manufacture, energy consumption, recycling, and reuse of mobile phones. There are, however, a number of qualifiers that should be made about this study. To start, there isn’t a lot of data on the dangers of using a cell phone. Second, in order to provide a complete conceptual picture of the problems and their solutions, this research has drawn heavily on secondary sources. As of now, it is unclear how many of the sensors included in today’s smartphones can be used to agriculture. Physical sensors, such as barometers and humidity sensors, may provide useful information about their surroundings and might be easily adapted for use in agriculture. This opens the door for researchers and developers to imagine new applications for these sensors. Further research is needed using primary data on producer and consumer behaviors, perspectives, and techniques to shed light on the risks posed by mobile phones and the best ways to mitigate them. In addition, if several high-quality studies demonstrated the effects of RF-EMFs, the next step would be to examine the underlying biophysical process (s). Most of the articles included in this evaluation suggested novel concepts and novel solutions to address issues in agriculture experienced by a specific user population. While effective, most of these approaches have only been piloted on a small scale and for a limited time. Expanding the scope of the offered solutions in both space and time might be beneficial.
There has been a general agreement among the investigations done so far that plants exposed to RF-EMFs experience stress-like circumstances. Researchers have shown that biochemical (enzyme) and cellular activity changes in response to exposure, with both factors being determined by the intensity and duration of the exposure. It is fair to assume that RF-EMFs exposure has some kind of effect on the whole plant life cycle, beginning with germination and ending with fruiting. In addition, this raises concerns that radiation from cellphones may significantly alter the ratio of active ingredients in pharmaceutical plants and the quality of agricultural output. Changes in pollination and microbial interactions are examples of indirect effects that have been described. There is a need for further field research on the effects of mobile phone RF-EMFs on various plant species. Plants, and particularly food crops, need to have their safe values established, and the reasonably safe values must be preserved in locations where agricultural food crops are farmed on a big scale. Several environments, topographies, and soils might be researched for the same plant. Extensive studies can help to come out with generalized solutions to mitigate and prevent such detrimental effects on plants.
All the authors are highly thankful to Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan and National University of Huancavelica, Huancavelica Peru, for their moral support.
