2023 Volume 11 Pages 291-309
Growing populations and less space and water for farming make it harder to produce enough food. This forces people to come up with new, cleaner ways to increase crop yields. There are considerable concerns about food safety and quality globally as a sustainable food supply becomes more critical. Increasing the application of agrochemicals and synthetic fertilizers results in losing soil biodiversity and developing pesticide-resistant pathogens. As a result, using advanced technologies to monitor agricultural production is crucial to improving crop yields. Over the past few years, nanotechnology has opened up various possibilities for crop yield improvement and efficient food processing. Nanofibers, nanosensors, nanofertilizers, nanoherbicides and nanofungicides are examples of nanotechnology options for agricultural production systems. As nanoparticles possess specific chemical and structural characteristics, they are capable of transferring nutrients to plants, synthesizing nanopesticides and nanofungicides, and making nanosensors for detecting pesticide deficiencies. Nanotechnology applications still need to be developed. Designed to release precisely and slowly, agrochemical compounds are encapsulated in nanoparticles. This review aims to address modern agriculture’s challenges related to nanotechnology, in order to develop more efficient and sustainable food production systems, and its novelty lies in evaluating nanotechnology’s effectiveness by examining smart sensors, nanofertilizers for soil improvement and crop yield, controlled release of agrochemicals, improved nutrient delivery, and disease and pest management.
A major contributor to the development and progress of most developing countries is the agricultural sector. As a plausible response to the increasing population in the world, scientists and engineers around the globe are inventing and adapting newer innovations to increase agricultural production [1, 2]. Crop yields are promoted worldwide through the application of synthetic agrochemicals [3]. Nevertheless, over 90 percent of these chemicals must meet their intended expectations or targets [4]. This has contributed to capital wastage and severe environmental hazards affecting land and water ecosystems [5]. An efficient and successful agro-system can be achieved with the continuous development of innovative technologies, in particular nanoscale technologies. Agricultural economies have resulted from the publication and patenting of nanomaterials used in agriculture, both in developing and developed countries [6]. Many problems have never been seen before, including but not limited to climate change; scarcity of agricultural resources; land use policies; rapid urbanization; globalization; diminished performance; substantial post-harvest loss; and so on [7].
Recent studies have investigated the effectiveness of nanomaterials on agroecosystems to enhance crop production and protection [8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Due to their notable physical-chemical properties, metal nanoparticles have gained increasing attention over the past few years [13]. Nanotechnology plays an interdisciplinary role, encompassing knowledge from a broad range of disciplines. Furthermore, nanotechnology incorporates physical sciences, biological sciences, chemical engineering, pharmacology and agricultural science [14, 15, 16, 17]. In terms of precision and intensive farming technologies, nanotechnology seems promising. It can increase food production and quality, detect and manage diseases, monitor plant growth, and reduce crop losses or waste toward improving global food security [18].
Recently, improvements in crop production and disease prevention have been added to the list of uses for nanomaterials in agriculture and agro-industry [19]. Metal oxides can be utilized as excellent carriers, soil enhancers, or facilitators of bioactivities when heterogenized with biopolymer nanofibers [20]. Nanotechnology describes the process of synthesizing, designing, optimizing, characterizing, and utilizing assemblies, tools, and a nano-scale system (from 1 to 100 nanometers) [21]. In addition to metal oxides and magnets, nanoparticles can be made from peptides, polymers (organic and synthetic), fibers, and suspensions [22, 23]. Compared to conventional systems, nanoparticles can solve many agriculture challenges with significant plant growth, nutrient uptake, and disease control improvements. As an organic pesticide, chitosan nanoparticles can be applied to protect seeds from fungal infestations [24]. Furthermore, nanoparticles have an effective impact on seedling emergence and establishment [25]. There are many oxide nanoparticles studied, such as titanium dioxide, silicon dioxide, zinc oxide, silver oxide, iron oxides, cerium dioxide, and others [26].
Silica nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs) can accurately deliver chemical compounds, peptides, and biomolecules to plants, improving production and effectiveness. SiO2 NPs also reduced cadmium absorption and arsenic toxic effects in greenhouse and field studies, reducing crop oxidative stress from heavy metal accumulation [27]. Additionally, SiO2 NPs can be applied independently as nano pesticides, nano herbicides, and nano fertilizers. This will prevent pathogenic organisms, enhance crop yields, and control weeds and insects at a lower cost and energy cost. It also possesses significant potential for agricultural sustainability [28]. El-Shetehy et al. [29] found amorphous SiO2 nanoparticles can provide plants with an acquired immune response without adversely affecting crop yield or non-target organisms while also being traceless, degradable, and highly effective. In recent years, as the population has grown, food needs have increased. Despite this, climate change causes prolonged droughts, floods, heat waves, and frequent fires, resulting in low yields of agricultural food production worldwide. Approximately 22000 pathogenic organisms (including fungi and pathogenic bacteria) cause up to 40% of the economic damages in the agriculture sector [30, 31]. Nanoparticles can also extend food storage time by minimizing post-farm damage. It is still necessary to conduct additional research to address the perceived safety and health risks [32]. Based on ScienceDirect publications, Figure 1 shows the growing number of studies conducted on nanopesticides, nanofertilizers, and nanoparticles relevant to agriculture between 2010 and 2024 (ScienceDirect publications). The aim of this review is to address modern agriculture challenges related to nanotechnology, in order to develop a more efficient and sustainable food production system by discussing smart sensors for crop monitoring, nanofertilizers for soil improvement and crop yield, controlled release of agrochemicals, enhanced nutrient delivery, and disease and pest management.
Figure 1: Data from ScienceDirect publications on nanoparticles in agriculture, nanopesticides and nanofertilizers
The production of nanofibers can be accomplished with metal compounds, as well as polymers of natural or synthetic origin. Nanofibers exist in many forms, including organic, synthesized, nonorganic, carbon-based or composite fibers. An advantageous property of nanofibers compared with nanoparticles is that they do not cause cell destruction. Due to their small size, nanoparticles can enter the cells of humans and destroy organelles, resulting in death of cells [33]. In agriculture, nanofibers are utilized for various preharvest processes. These compounds are mainly employed as carriers for fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and biosensors [34]. Alternatively, they are used for post-harvest coatings which offer antibacterial properties along with an additional benefit of extending the product’s storage life [35, 36]. Biodegradable biopolymers such as cellulose metabolites, poly lactic acid, zein, chitosan, alginate, DNA, polycaprolactone, poly ethylene oxide, and poly vinyl alcohol are valuable resources in the synthesis of nanofibers from agricultural waste [37]. Nanofibers primarily serve as encapsulants. As a result of encapsulation, pesticides can be released slowly and their uptake is reduced [38]. Due to the hydrophobic nature of lipid-based emulsions, nanoemulsions make it possible to encapsulate nonpolar bioactive compounds [39]. Nanoemulsions have the potential to enhance the bioactivity of agrochemicals through the augmentation of the bioavailability of lipophilic compounds [40]. In comparison with regular nanoemulsions, nanolipid carriers offer greater benefits regarding their capability to minimize the release of biologically active compounds and better control the way in which they are released [41]. Wani et al. [42] discussed the use of nanotechnology in agrochemical efficiency in agroecosystems and the development of nano-delivery strategies utilizing lipids (liposomes and emulsions) and additional novel approaches (niosomes and dendrimers).
Nanosensors are small, portable, reliable and customized instruments containing biological elements, such as proteins, tissue and cells, which are processed to produce a response human can understand [43]. Nanosensors use electrochemical functions to detect compounds, gases and agricultural pollutants. One of the most important benefits of nanotech products is their role in developing independent nanosensors that can be spread across farms and used with a GPS device to monitor crop growth in a precise and detailed way [44]. This provides more reliable and valuable information, including the optimal time for the plant to crop harvest, thereby leading to improved agricultural practices [8]. Electrical and bio-nanosensors are the two most common nanosensors employed in agricultural practices [45]. Incorporating nanoparticles and biology into sensors can enhance detection and reduce response time in the case of a potential issue.
Nanosensors could be employed for temperature recording, irrigation estimation, freezing prediction, applying pesticides, harvest dates, and measuring water purification [46]. Nanosensors could improve crop production and protection via monitoring controlled-release fertilizers, plant pest detection, irrigation control, food processing and packaging, and plant health assessment. Nanosensors can detect pesticide residues, heavy metals, and nutrient losses, as well as evaluate soil moisture and microbial populations, making them useful for monitoring soil quality [45]. Nanosensors are expected to impact the manufacturing, environment, and food industries in the future. Nanosensors allow pests, pollutants, and agrochemicals to be identified and controlled more efficiently. Analyzing the environment, making accurate and quick production process assessments, and taking action using the data generated to improve productivity with the intelligent application of agrochemicals are the main components of an agronomic strategy.
Nanotechnology has been a game-changer for boosting crop yields and assessing the efficiency of soil and fertilizer distribution in agricultural studies. It’s also compatible with carbon nanotube, nanofiber, and quantum dot biosensors. The use of nanoparticles helps to lessen chemical pollution [47]. Developing and using vermiculite, nano clay, and zeolite is expected to boost fertilizer effectiveness and increase yields [48]. In biodynamic agricultural approaches, nonorganic fertilizers decrease NH4-N transport and enhance N fertilizer effectiveness [49]. Fertilizers are important components of agricultural production systems. Fertilizers are shown to increase soil fertility in a linear manner, thereby increasing crop production [50]. Nano fertilizer is a nanometer-sized material, which offers a reliable plant transportation and releases nutrients slowly in a highly controlled manner, thus mediating the effect of eutrophication and contamination of irrigation water [51].
Nanofertilizers enhance nutrient efficacy by encapsulating nutrients inside nanoparticles in three different ways. (a) Encapsulating nutrients within nanoporous materials: This method helps to protect the nutrients from degradation by trapping them in nanopores, making them less available to microorganisms. It also increases the surface area of the nutrients, making them easier for plants to absorb. (b) Applying an ultra-thin polymeric coating: This technique is used to create a uniform barrier layer that prevents moisture from penetrating the material. It also helps to reduce the friction of moving parts, thereby improving the efficiency of the system. Additionally, it can provide protection from corrosion and other damage. (c) Nanoscale delivery of particles or suspensions: Nanoparticles or suspensions can be precisely controlled in size, shape, and composition, allowing them to be efficiently used in a variety of medical, industrial, and other applications. In addition to their small size, nanoscale fertilizers could lead to better nutrient delivery since they may be able to reach plant surfaces and transport channels more effectively [52]. Tomatoes, peppers, and flowers were grown using nanofertilizer derived from banana peels [48]. Nanofertilizers were applied to develop and improve crops. Chickpeas were grown with nanoparticles of ZnO, maize with silicon dioxide and iron slag powder, tomatoes with colloidal silica and NPK, spinach with TiO2, and grapes with gold and sulfur fertilizers [48]. It may be possible to use fertilizers that bind to soil content and organic material so that they anchor roots in soil, reducing chemical loss and protecting the environment [53]. The use of nanoscale fertilizers reduces soil toxicity, thereby minimizing the adverse effects of high doses. In addition to slowing nutrient release, nano fertilizers extend the duration of fertilizer impact [54]. The use of TiO2 nanoparticles showed significant effects on maize crop growth; in addition, the use of SiO2 plus TiO2 nanoparticles boosted nitrate action and increased plant absorption potential through controlled use of water and fertilizer [18]. Table 1 represents the effects of different nanofertilizers on crop growth and productivity.
Table 1: The impact of nanofertilizers on different crops
| Nanofertilizer | Target plant | Results | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sulfur nanoparticles | Brassica napus | Sulfur nanoparticle application increased oilseed rape yields and reduced toxic metal concentrations in soil environment. | [55] |
| Iron, Zinc, and Manganese Nanofertilizers | Brassica oleracea and Lupinus sp | Cabbage and Lupin growth increased significantly with applying nanofertilizers at 270 ppm. | [56] |
| CuO Nanoparticles | Triticum aestivum | As a micronutrient, nano-CuO has an advantage over soluble Cu salts for plant growth. | [57] |
| Chitosan-silicon nanofertilizer | Zea mays | Nanofertilizers promoted photosynthesis more than conventional fertilizers by increasing total chlorophyll content and leaf area. | [58] |
| Urea-Doped Calcium Phosphate Nanoparticles | Vitis vinifera | Significant effectiveness of nanoparticles as a nitrogen fertilizer and a basis for developing novel nitrogen fertilization approaches. | [59] |
| Waste-Derived NPK Nanofertilizer | Capsicum annuum | Nanofertilizer significantly improved crop growth, yield, and harvest compared with chemical fertilizer-treated plants. | [60] |
| Mixed nanofertilizer | Solanum lycopersicum | Mixed nanofertilizer significantly improved tomato plants’ growth parameters compared to commercial fertilizers. | [61] |
| NPK nanofertilizers | Solanum tuberosum | Nanofertilizers were a successful economic strategy with a significant improvement in potato quality and production. | [62] |
| Calcium phosphate nanoparticles doped with urea | Triticum durum | The yields and quality of crops fertilized with nanoparticles were significantly enhanced, and nitrogen absorption by durum wheat was significantly improved. | [63] |
| Zinc nanofertilizer | Phaseolus vulgaris | Zinc nanofertilizer showed the best results in terms of vegetative and reproductive parameters. | [64] |
Nitrogen-containing fertilizers or phosphate substances have significantly improved crop yields, but they adversely affect favourable soil microorganisms [65]. The process of runoff results in the removal of soil nutrients and renders the majority of fertilizer inputs unavailable to plants, thereby leading to pollution [66]. The utilization of fertilizers coated with nanomaterials presents a potential solution to this problem, as it enables a regulated discharge of nutrients. This is due to the enhanced surface tension exhibited by nanoparticles, which facilitates the efficient retention of fertilizers for plant utilization. Additionally, nanocoatings protect larger particles from damage [67, 68].
N2O in the atmosphere increases by about 80% when nitrogen fertilizers are used excessively, contributing to global warming [69]. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide that is consistently emitted from the conversion activities of soil microbiota. Approximately 40–70% of nitrogen, 80–90% of phosphorus, and 50–70% of potassium of fertilizers introduced to the soil are discharged to the environment as run-off or evaporated and cannot reach plants [70]. Hence, nano-coating has been invented as the solution to this problem due to its ability to release coated fertilizer slowly and sustainably and its ability to be absorbed more effectively by plants. Consequently, fertilizer input is minimized, and the negative effect on the environment is reduced. An extended fertilizer bioavailability has been achieved by using a variety of polymers, both organic and synthesized. Biodegradable polymeric chitosan nanoparticles (78 nm) were shown to exhibit promising performance as sustained-release NPK fertilizers [71]. One possible method for producing a slow-release fertilizer involves the utilization of kaolin and polymeric biocompatible nanoparticles [72].
Nanofertilizers (NFs) are an excellent option to typical synthetic fertilizers. NFs deliver nutrients more innovatively, increasing crop productivity and being more environmentally friendly than bulky chemical fertilizers. The innovative and effective delivery system of NFs is why they are regarded as intelligent fertilizers [51]. The application methods and particle properties of NFs determine how plants can absorb them through their foliage and roots [73]. NFs improve plant adaptability to environmental stresses. They minimize crop production costs and reduce the impact of fertilizer application-induced greenhouse effect on the environment [74]. Although NFs negatively affect agricultural yields, soil fertility, and overall ecosystem quality at supra-optimal doses [10, 59]. NFs can cause changes in soil pH, compaction, and erosion, which can all affect the ability of plants to grow. Additionally, NFs can contaminate water sources, which can further impact agricultural production. It is believed that large-scale releases of NFs in the soil and food supply may threaten human health; therefore, it must be carefully studied [74]. Crop productivity increased significantly in developing countries due to chemical fertilizers [75]. The physicochemical properties of NFs make them more effective than conventional chemical fertilizers. So, by using foliar and basal sprays, NFs are capacitated to enter plant systems regarding their tiny particle diameter (< 100 nm) [76]. The ultra-small size of nanomaterials makes them able to provide a large surface area and a high surface area to volume ratio [77], making them more adherent and absorbent than traditional large-scale synthetic fertilizers.
In certain environmental conditions and production methods, NF applications increased cereal yields by 10–25%, oilseed yields by 20–30%, and pulse yields by 13–15% [78]. Accordingly, applying P-based NFs potentially enhances soybean seed yield by 20% compared to regular chemical fertilizers [79]. Nevertheless, the intensive application of NFs could hypothetically adversely affect crop growth and the environment. Moreover, due to extra doses of NFs, phytotoxicity may also be a major concern for some sensitive plant species [80]. NFs suppliers also need to consider the cost efficiency, safety, recycling potential, biodegradability, and the possibility of recovering the product after use [81]. There are many fundamental components that may serve as NFs, including zeolites, silver, copper, aluminum, carbon, zinc, potassium, nitrogen, silica, iron, magnesium, sodium, calcium, and manganese. Plant extracts from grapes [82] and other plant-derived substances also contribute to the production of NFs. Recently, natural zeolite (consisting of more than 50 minerals) was modified to form NFs. NFs are produced for three main reasons, including (i) producing nanoparticles containing minerals, (ii) introducing nano-sized ingredients in classic or conventional nutrient supplements, (iii) and coating conventional fertilizers with nanoparticles. Encapsulation is the most common method for creating NFs with nanomaterials. As a result of the amount and type of micronutrients in NFs, NFs generally fall into three categories: (i) macronutrient, (ii) micronutrient, and (iii) biofertilizer-derived NFs [73].
Many crops worldwide are lost each year due to pests and pathogens [83]. For decades, reliance on chemically synthesized and semi-synthesized pesticides has been the conventional solution to crop or agrosystem losses. Still, their applications are trailed by multifaceted concerns that caused an attention shift to greener solutions that are less costly, toxigenic, abrasive, eco-friendlier, conservative, and health invigorating. In order to reduce environmental contamination, reliable, cost-efficient, and highly effective pesticides are required. Nanopesticides, apart from biopesticides, are some of the developed methods designed to minimize the challenges associated with conventional pesticides. Consequently, nanopesticides are generally described as nano-scale components of pesticide-active ingredients or nanostructures with functional pesticidal effects. Nanopesticides have the potential to minimize negative effects on the ecosystem and human health associated with the long-term application of pesticides.
Nanopesticides are able to minimize toxic effects, prolong shelf lives, and improve the soluble properties of less water-soluble pesticides, providing benefits to the environment and a comparative edge over other pesticides [84]. Nanotechnology-based herbicides and pesticides deliver minerals and agrochemicals to plants gradually and steadily. Generally, nanoparticles can provide plants with protection through two different mechanisms. In one of the mechanisms, the nanoparticles provide crop protection, while in the other, they serve as carriers for already-existing pesticides and be sprayed [85]. Despite this, due to skepticism about their possible health risks, nanomaterials still need to be explored for use in plant protection and food production. As a result of coating graphene oxide with copper selenide, Sharma et al. [86] achieved > 35% larval mortality with a chalcogen pesticide (Cu2–xSe). Nanopesticides have several advantages over traditional pesticides. Figure 2 illustrates some of these advantages.
Figure 2: Benefits of nanopesticides over traditional pesticides
Nano herbicides deliver active ingredients at the molecular level through nanoscale production or nano-based compounds. Nanomaterials compounds make herbicides more efficient, soluble, and less toxic than traditional herbicides [87, 88]. Nano herbicide applications in the early stages of weed control could decrease herbicide resistance, sustain their effectiveness, and extend their release over a more extended period [89]. A nano herbicide penetrates the weeds and transits to the root system, inhibiting glycolysis in the root system [90]. Nano herbicides target the weeds, induce depletion of these plants, and consequently destroy them. Likewise, weeds are eliminated with the gradual release of herbicides through encapsulation [91]. In addition, nanomaterials are expected to be included in adjuvants for improving herbicidal efficacy. According to Sobiech et al. [92], organosilicate nanosurfactants enhance the effectiveness of cycloxidim and fluroxypyr herbicides. Pereira et al. [93] encapsulated atrazine to evaluate its phytotoxic and genotoxic properties. In addition to reducing soil mobility and genotoxicity (chromosome analysis on Allium cepa), atrazine nanoparticles suppressed Brassica species successfully in Zea mays. Table 2 shows the effectiveness of different nanoherbicides.
Table 2: The results of nanoherbicide efficiency in agricultural systems
| Herbicide alone | Nanoformulation | Results | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Metribuzin | Nanoencapsulated metribuzin | Enhanced weed control with nanoencapsulated metribuzin even at low concentrations (48 g a.i. ha-1) with low environmental risk. | [94] |
| Ametryn and atrazine | Poly(epsilon-caprolactone) nanocapsules containing ametryn and atrazine |
The nanocapsule formulations have the capability to decrease the quantity of herbicides used and the negative effects on environmental and human health. | [95] |
| Atrazine | Poly(epsilon-caprolactone) nanoparticles | Enhancement of nanoatrazine’s herbicidal activity against target plants. | [96] |
| Diuron | Stem lignin nanoparticles |
Improvements in the bioefficacy of diuron to control target plants. | [97] |
| Paraquat | Chitosan/tripolyphosphate/pectin nanoparticles |
Extremely effective with substantial herbicide activity, less toxic to human, less cytotoxicity, and mutagenicity. | [98] |
| Paraquat | Chitosan nanoparticles | Minimized the adverse effects of paraquat nanoparticles on alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. | [99] |
| Atrazine | Poly(epsilon-caprolactone) nanoencapsulation | The herbicidal activity can be maintained at low dosages and the herbicidal effectiveness can be significantly improved. | [100] |
| Bentazon | ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposite | Bentazon degradation in aqueous solutions is enhanced by photocatalysis. | [101] |
| Glyphosate | Nanocomposite | Controlling the release of herbicides and improving their effectiveness. | [102] |
| Ametryne | Nanocomposite based on starch gel, a renewable polymer, and montmorillonite clay | Improve Ametryne’s release and efficiency. | [103] |
| Atrazine | Nanoparticles of poly(epsilon-caprolactone) | significant effects on weeds, as well as reducing environmental and human health risks. | [93] |
Food and agricultural products are spoiled and infected by fungi, leading to significant decreases in food production, quality, and marketability. Plant pathogenic fungi may be catastrophic at any stage of plant and tissue development by contributing significantly to crop losses every year [104]. Metal and metal oxide nanoparticles are gaining considerable scholarly interest because of their potential effectiveness at controlling resistant pathogenic organisms causing substantial agricultural loss [105]. Antifungal properties have been demonstrated for metal nanoparticles such as silver, silver oxide, titanium dioxide, silicon, copper oxide, zinc oxide, gold, calcium oxide, and magnesium oxide [106]. According to Abd-Elsalam et al. [107], nanoparticles (NPs) made from metals and metal oxides combined with natural products and combined NPs containing naturally degradable compounds like chitosan along with antifungal compounds are potential alternatives to chemical fungicides. There are two crucial factors to consider in the application of NPs in pathogen management: their direct effect on pathogenic agents and their ability to modify biopesticides as nanomaterials [108]. It might be possible to replace existing fungicides with nanofungicides that are environmentally friendly. A unique class of green and hybrid nanofungicides has been created with optimal solubility, enhanced synergy, demonstrated recyclable properties in soil and water, minimal side effects, and potential plant health benefits.
There is additionally considerable possibility for sulfur nanoparticles (SNPs) to act as antifungal agents [109]. Modifying SNPs surfaces resulted in antifungal compounds that inhibited Aspergillus niger and Fusarium oxysporum [110]. As a result of biosynthesis of nanometals, bacteria, algae, yeasts, fungi, actinomycetes, and viruses are utilized [111]. These compounds provide a cost-effective, effective, and eco-friendly agriculture pest management strategy. Nano formulation of fungicides minimizes environmental contamination and achieves more efficient devastation to target organisms [112].
Nanotechnology can improve water management in different ways. Water purification, desalination, monitoring, and sensing of water are some of the key nanotechnology applications in water management. Water purification can be advanced using nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles and nanocomposites. Nanomaterials have a strong binding affinity for certain contaminants, allowing them to remove them from the water quickly and efficiently. Additionally, nanomaterials are much smaller than traditional materials, allowing them to be used in small spaces, such as pipes and filters, which can also reduce costs [13]. The use of nanotechnology in desalination processes plays a significant role in converting seawater or brackish water into freshwater. Nanomaterials can also be used to remove pollutants from seawater, such as heavy metals and toxins, which improves the quality of the water produced [113]. Nanosensors detect changes in water parameters, which can then be used to manage the water supply. They are small, inexpensive, and energy-efficient, making them an ideal solution for remote water network monitoring. Additionally, they are able to detect a wide range of contaminants, allowing for early detection of potential water issues [114]. Nanotechnology can contribute to water conservation efforts by improving water efficiency in various applications. Nanotechnology can also be used to develop new materials that capture and retain water, such as hydrogels and nanofibers. These materials can be applied to reduce water loss in agriculture, landscaping, and other industries, as well as to reduce the impact of floods and droughts [115].
Nanotechnology has the potential to have positive impacts on the environment in several ways including pollution remediation, energy efficiency, waste management and recycling, and environmental monitoring. Nanoparticles can be utilized for bio-remediation, such as removing pollutants from the air, water, and soil. Nanoparticles can also be used to develop waste management and recycling systems that are more efficient and cost-effective. Additionally, nanoparticles can be used to develop environmental monitoring systems that detect pollutants in the environment and provide real-time data [116]. Nanomaterials with specific properties can capture and degrade pollutants, including heavy metals, organic contaminants, and harmful gases. This leads to cleaner and safer environments. Nanotechnology offers opportunities for improving energy efficiency and reducing environmental impact. For instance, nanomaterials can enhance solar cells’ performance, making them more efficient at converting sunlight into electricity. Nanotechnology can enhance waste management processes and promote recycling. Nanomaterials can be employed for efficient waste treatment and conversion. This includes the degradation of organic waste, the removal of contaminants from wastewater, and the recovery of valuable materials from electronic waste. These advancements reduce the environmental burden associated with waste disposal. Nanosensors and nanodevices can be employed for environmental monitoring and pollution detection. These tiny sensors can provide real-time and highly sensitive measurements of pollutants, facilitating early detection and response to potential threats. This enables proactive measures to mitigate pollution risks and protect ecosystems [117].
Nanotechnology has the potential to benefit the agricultural sector by improving crop production, resource efficiency, and food quality. Nanotechnology offers opportunities to enhance crop yield and productivity through targeted nutrient delivery, controlled-release systems, and improved crop protection. Nanomaterials can deliver nutrients directly to plant roots, improving uptake efficiency and minimizing fertilizer waste. Nanoencapsulation of agrochemicals can enhance their efficacy, reducing dosage and minimizing environmental impact. Nanoparticles can also be used to protect plants from pests and diseases, as well as to reduce drought and salinity. They can also help create more efficient irrigation systems, which can reduce water loss and conserve water resources [118]. Nanotechnology-based solutions can improve crop protection by providing targeted and controlled release of pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides. This enables the more efficient use of agrochemicals, preventing environmental contamination and lowering farmer costs. Additionally, nanomaterials can be utilized to protect crops from pests by creating barriers that prevent pests from entering or damaging plants. Furthermore, nanomaterials can also be used to detect pests early, allowing for more timely and effective pest management [119]. Nanotechnology can extend agricultural products’ shelf life and improve their quality. Nanocoatings can also improve the efficiency of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides, as they can be more efficiently absorbed and used by plants. Furthermore, nanosensors can be used to detect diseases and pests early, allowing for more targeted and cost-effective treatments [120]. Finally, nanotechnology-based agricultural products can provide significant market opportunities. Nanomaterials, nanofertilizers, and nanosensors that are innovative can attract investment and open the door to technology licensing and partnerships. These nanomaterials have the potential to increase crop yields, reduce water usage, and improve soil quality. Nanotechnology-based agricultural products can also reduce production costs, making them more cost-effective for farmers and allowing them to increase their profits [8].
Nanotechnology regulatory and safety concerns focus on ensuring the safe development, production, and use of nanomaterials, as well as addressing potential health and environmental risks associated with their application. Nanomaterials may exhibit unique properties and behaviors compared to their bulk counterparts, which can potentially lead to new or enhanced risks. Evaluating nanomaterial hazards and risks is crucial. This includes assessing their toxicity, exposure pathways, and possible impacts on human health and the environment. Nanomaterials can have different physical and chemical properties than their bulk counterparts, which can contribute to different exposure pathways and toxicological outcomes [121]. In addition, due to their small size, nanomaterials can be transported and dispersed more easily, leading to increased potential for environmental contamination [122]. Therefore, it is critical to assess these risks to protect human health and the environment. Understanding nanomaterials’ potential impacts on ecosystems requires assessing their environmental impact. It involves determining their fate, behavior, bioaccumulation potential, and impacts on organisms and ecosystems. Mitigating adverse effects requires environmental risk assessment and management. It is also important to consider the potential consequences of nanomaterials on the environment, including their ability to interfere with biological processes, their ability to persist in the environment, their ability to bioaccumulate, and their potential for toxicity [123]. Furthermore, public awareness and engagement efforts are crucial to fostering understanding and addressing nanotechnology concerns. Transparency about the benefits, risks, and safety measures of nanomaterials is a priority. Public participation in discussions and decision-making processes can contribute to the development and deployment of nanotechnology in a responsible manner.
Researchers will be able to study nanoparticles’ prolonged effects on nature and health over the next decade. Extensive and comprehensive laboratory experiments are required to understand all the potential effects of nanoparticles on biological systems. These empirical studies, however, still need to be established. The active ingredient must be encapsulated in an appropriate material to enable direct delivery of nanoscale components to produce nano agrochemicals. Nanobiosensors can be used in agroecosystems to provide multiple parameters and identify future food constituents on the nanoscale. Nevertheless, nanotechnology in agriculture is still in its infancy, and more understanding is expected to be required concerning the containment of nanoagrochemicals in appropriate carrier materials, fabrication techniques, application modes, and, above all, the toxicity and safety impacts of nanoscale molecules on plants as well as crops. Further research is needed to determine the mechanism that regulates the dose of bioactivity delivered by nanoparticles in target agrosystem management. For this reason, research in the future is expected to focus on developing databases and research data in order to facilitate the wider implementation of this emerging field. Accordingly, investigations into the risk of nanoparticle toxicity associated with nanofertilizers development and utilization requirements are essential.
Overuse of agrochemicals, such as fertilizers and pesticides, has become a major problem in modern agriculture requiring immediate attention. Due to the increasing number of chemical compounds and substances that are prohibited or regarded as forbidden from application in agriculture due to their harmfulness to humans and the environment, finding a safer replacement is highly imperative and of priority. Agronomists are interested in nanotechnology because of its specialized structural, biochemical, and biological properties. Many disciplines use nanomaterials, including chemical engineering, agriculture, pharmaceuticals and drug delivery, electronics, renewable energy, food processing, etc. Nanotechnology in agriculture offers many advantages for plant production and protection and global food security. Nanomaterials possess desirable attributes, among them solubility and bioavailability of pesticides, reducing their toxicity and environmental effects. These compounds also improve plant nutrient uptake and effectively deliver nutrients to targeted locations. Consequently, nanotechnology in agriculture has not yet been fully determined in terms of its functioning and long-term impacts, such as safety, adverse effects, the way it interacts with other substances found in the plant environment, as well as their persistence after activity. Nanofertilizers significantly contribute to the sustainability of food production and the ecosystem, overcoming the negative impacts of conventional fertilizers. There is no doubt that NFs provide an eco-friendly replacement for synthetic fertilizers. Concerns about nano fertilizers’ interaction with the environment, sensitivity to changing climate conditions, and their potential impact on humanity need to be thoroughly investigated prior to their commercialization and practical scale. Nanotechnology has immense potential in agriculture, but more research is needed to determine how best to optimize its benefits for improving agriculture.
The authors state no funding involved.
There are no competing interests reported by the authors.
