From Grasses to Trees: Aromatic Plants as Natural Antidepressants Insights from Poaceae, Zingiberaceae, Lauraceae, and Rutaceae Families

ABSTRACT

This review synthesizes current findings on aromatic plants from the Poaceae, Zingiberaceae, Rutaceae, and Lauraceae families and their potential as plant-based bioresources for mental health applications. These families are rich in essential oils and secondary metabolites, including linalool, limonene, citronellal, and curcumin, which play key roles in mood regulation, oxidative stress control, and other neurochemical pathways. A systematic literature review of PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar (2003–2025) examined preclinical and emerging clinical studies on the neuroprotective and mood-modulating effects of their extracts and essential oils.

The analysis highlights essential phytochemicals, proposed mechanisms of action, and variability in biological responses linked to plant species, chemical composition, and signaling pathways. Aromatic plants from these families demonstrate antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like effects, primarily through modulation of monoaminergic and GABAergic systems and regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) pathways. However, most conclusions rely on preclinical data with limited clinical validation. Further research is needed to standardize chemical composition, optimize cultivation and harvesting practices, and establish safety and efficacy for broader agricultural and therapeutic applications.

1. Introduction

Mental health disorders, including depression, anxiety, and chronic stress, represent growing global challenges that impair individual well-being, workforce productivity, and societal resilience. Depression alone affects over 300 million people worldwide and remains a leading cause of disability and diminished quality of life. Although conventional pharmacological therapies remain widely used, their efficacy is often limited by adverse effects, long-term dependence, and variable patient responses [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. These shortcomings have spurred interest in complementary approaches from natural resources, particularly plant-based products with established traditional use.

Plants serve as rich reservoirs of bioactive secondary metabolites with diverse physiological effects. Many phytochemicals interact with the central nervous system (CNS) by modulating key neurotransmitter systems (serotonin, dopamine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)) which regulate mood and stress responses [6, 9, 10]. From agricultural and biological perspectives, these compounds hold dual value: their pharmacological potential and their ability to enhance the economic worth of cultivated and wild plant resources.

Aromatic plants warrant particular attention in this context, as they produce essential oils, complex mixtures of volatile compounds that mediate plant defense, ecological interactions, and economic utility. These oils, long utilized in traditional medicine, foods, cosmetics, and perfumery, also exhibit neuroactive properties. Aromatherapy, employing controlled inhalation or topical application of essential oils, offers a noninvasive route to influence mood and emotional states through olfactory and neurochemical pathways. Experimental and emerging clinical studies indicate that essential oils can alleviate anxiety, stress, and depressive symptoms by modulating neurotransmitter activity, reducing neuroinflammation, and promoting neuroplasticity through brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].

Understanding the botanical origins and chemical variability of essential oil-producing plants is essential for their effective, sustainable utilization. Among the estimated 800,000–1.5 million plant species worldwide, approximately 10% produce essential oils. Several families stand out for their mood-modulating bioactive compounds, notably Poaceae, Zingiberaceae, Lauraceae, and Rutaceae, which yield key constituents such as linalool, limonene, citronellal, and curcumin [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. The concentration and composition of these compounds vary significantly with species, genotype, environmental conditions, and agronomic practices, emphasizing the critical role of plant science research in ensuring consistent quality and efficacy.

This review examines four major aromatic plant families : Poaceae (grasses), Zingiberaceae (rhizomatous herbs), Lauraceae (aromatic trees), and Rutaceae (citrus and related species), prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions with substantial potential as value-added agricultural bioresources. By synthesizing botanical, phytochemical, and biological evidence, we highlight their significance for sustainable agriculture, natural product development, and mental health applications.

2. Methodology

This systematic literature review utilized PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar to identify relevant studies published between 2003 and 2025. The search combined keywords including antidepressant, anxiolytic, mental health, essential oils, bioactive compounds, and the plant families Poaceae, Zingiberaceae, Rutaceae, and Lauraceae. Only English-language, peer-reviewed articles were included.

Records were exported to Mendeley for reference management and duplicate removal. Non-indexed studies were manually verified through Google Scholar and publisher websites, with duplicates identified by title, authorship, and publication year.

Study selection followed a two-stage process: title-abstract screening, then full-text evaluation against predefined inclusion criteria. Eligible studies comprised original research articles reporting experimental (in vitro, in vivo) or clinical investigations of antidepressant, anxiolytic, mood-enhancing, neuroprotective, or anti-inflammatory effects from aromatic plants or derivatives of the four target families. Studies using plant extracts, essential oils, or isolated bioactive compounds were included, encompassing mechanistic, behavioral, and phytochemical investigations.

From each selected article, we extracted data on plant species, major phytochemical constituents, experimental models (animal or human), neuropsychological outcomes, and proposed mechanisms (e.g., neurotransmitter modulation, anti-inflammatory activity, neurogenesis). Due to methodological heterogeneity, evidence was synthesized qualitatively using thematic analysis to identify common mechanistic pathways and family-specific pharmacological patterns.

This approach identified consistent therapeutic trends across families, highlighted knowledge gaps, and outlined priorities for future research, including standardized clinical trials and long-term safety assessments.

3. Aromatic plants, essential oils, and mental health

Aromatic plants, widely recognized as herbs and spices, exhibit global distribution with exceptional diversity in Mediterranean regions. Common species such as oregano, rosemary, sage, basil, citronella, and peppermint are commercially cultivated or wild-harvested for their essential oils and bioactive compounds, supporting applications in healthcare, industry, and environmental management [27, 28, 29, 30, 31].

These plants produce essential oils, complex mixtures of volatile secondary metabolites that mediate ecological functions including plant defense, chemical signaling, and environmental adaptation. From biological and agricultural perspectives, essential oils represent high-value products derived from renewable biomass via accessible extraction methods like steam distillation. Though widely utilized in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals, research targeting their mental health applications has only recently expanded [32, 33, 34, 35].

In mental health contexts, essential oils are primarily administered through aromatherapy, especially inhalation. This delivery route is particularly effective for psychophysiological effects, as volatile compounds rapidly access the central nervous system via olfactory and trigeminal pathways, bypassing first-pass metabolism. Consequently, inhalation produces rapid changes in mood- and stress-related responses. Unlike single-target drugs, essential oils multicomponent nature enables additive or synergistic neuromodulation across multiple pathways [36, 37, 38, 39].

Preclinical studies consistently link antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like effects to integrated terpenoid and volatile profiles rather than isolated compounds. Observed responses include reduced anxiety-like behaviors, antidepressant-like activity, and stress parameter modulation. However, outcomes vary substantially due to differences in plant species, chemotype, extraction method, exposure protocol, and experimental design [40, 41, 42, 43].

Despite increasing interest, methodological rigor and reporting quality remain inconsistent. Many studies prioritize behavioral outcomes over mechanistic validation, while underreporting taxonomic distinctions critical for chemical reproducibility. Variability in essential oil profiles poses significant challenges for standardization, cross-study comparisons, and clinical translation [44, 45, 46].

Recent molecular and biotechnological advances complement these findings. Vannini and Bracale [47] explore genetic engineering to enhance secondary metabolite production for aromatherapy. Horská et al. [48] demonstrate aromachology’s influence on consumer behavior in food applications, where citrus, floral, and bakery scents boost mood, appetite, and purchase intent. Singh et al. [49] comprehensively review essential oils pharmacology from species like clove, cinnamon, and Thymus, spanning diabetes, insomnia, and obesity management alongside nanomedicine innovations. Balkrishna et al. [50] integrate traditional herbal knowledge with modern validation, addressing safety, efficacy, and regulatory integration of plant remedies.

4. Biological mechanisms of aromatherapy in depression

Aromatic plant-derived essential oils influence mental wellness through multiple interconnected neurobiological pathways rather than single molecular targets [51, 52, 53]. Due to pathway overlap with prior sections, this provides an integrative framework, with detailed associations summarized in Figure 1 and Table 1.

Figure 1: Aromatherapy and the brain: Biological pathways to mental wellness

Inhaled volatiles rapidly access the CNS via olfactory/trigeminal pathways, bypassing first-pass metabolism for fast neuromodulation [54, 55, 56]. This route is well-suited to aromatherapy for mood, emotion, and stress regulation, though effects vary by volatility, concentration, and duration. Clinical applications of aromatherapy demonstrate efficacy in managing fibromyalgia, stress, and insomnia in vulnerable patients. Aromatherapy provides targeted relief for fibromyalgia symptoms in clinical settings. It also reduces stress and enhances sleep quality among intensive care unit patients in controlled trials. When combined with progressive muscle relaxation, lavender aromatherapy effectively alleviates insomnia in hemodialysis patients [57, 58, 59]. Preclinical studies link monoaminergic systems (serotonergic, dopaminergic, noradrenergic) to anxiolytic/antidepressant effects [60, 61, 62, 63], alongside GABAergic inhibition for anxiety [64, 65, 66]. Essential oil constituents also modulate neuroplasticity (BDNF), inflammation, and oxidative stress [67, 68, 69, 70]. Essential oils influence cognitive and emotional functions through inhalation and expectation effects. Manipulating expectations via verbal suggestion enhances memory performance with essential oils. Several essential oils, when inhaled, attenuate depressive-like behaviors in rat models and exhibit notable biological potential relevant to mental health applications [71, 72, 73].

These interconnected mechanisms underlie behavioral or physiological outcomes, though evidence remains indirect via biomarkers rather than causal validation. Heterogeneity in models, compositions, dosing, and routes limits interpretation [74, 75, 76, 77].

Table 1: Proposed mechanisms of action underlying the antidepressant effects of aromatherapy

No	Mechanism	Description	Main Effects	References
1	Olfactory & Neurotransmitter Modulation	Olfactory stimulation of limbic system influences mood neurotransmitters	Improved mood, reduced anxiety/stress	[14]
2	Neurotrophic Factor Regulation	Elevates BDNF and serotonin receptors, supporting neuronal function	Antidepressant effects, stability	[62, 63]
3	Oxytocin & Endocrine Effects	Stimulates oxytocin, reduces stress hormones	Anxiety reduction, well-being	[64, 65, 66]
4	Neuroimmune Modulation	Restores nervous-immune balance	Reduced inflammation	[64, 65]
5	Anti-inflammatory/Neuroprotection	Suppresses inflammation, promotes neurogenesis	Brain protection	[67, 68, 69]
6	Psychological Mechanisms	Aroma perception and expectations influence effects	Enhanced mood/cognition	[70, 71]
7	Mitochondrial/Oxidative Stress	Improves energy metabolism, reduces stress	Neuroprotection	[72]

Table 1 illustrates the multifaceted mechanisms through which aromatherapy exerts antidepressant effects, spanning molecular, neurochemical, endocrine, and psychological pathways. These seven mechanisms demonstrate the synergistic potential of essential oils, where volatile compounds simultaneously target neurotransmitter systems, neuroplasticity factors, inflammatory cascades, and psychological perception to produce comprehensive mood regulation. While preclinical evidence supports each pathway individually, their integrated activation likely underlies the holistic therapeutic benefits observed in aromatherapy applications. This multicomponent approach distinguishes essential oils from conventional single-target pharmacotherapies, offering promising avenues for complementary mental health interventions.

5. Aromatic plant families with antidepressant potential

This section examines representative species from four families (Poaceae, Zingiberaceae, Lauraceae, and Rutaceae) with documented antidepressant/anxiolytic effects mediated through monoaminergic, GABAergic, neuroinflammatory, and oxidative stress pathways (Table 1, Figure 1).

5.1 Poaceae

Species within the Poaceae have attracted growing scientific interest due to their diverse phytochemical profiles and broad pharmacological potential. Investigations of selected Poaceae species highlight significant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroactive properties that support their traditional medicinal uses [73]. In particular, essential oils from the genus Cymbopogon, including Cymbopogon citratus, Cymbopogon nardus, Cymbopogon winterianus, and Cymbopogon flexuosus, have demonstrated notable neurobehavioral effects. Reviews emphasize their anxiolytic, antidepressant-like, anticonvulsant, and sedative activities, largely attributed to bioactive constituents such as citral, citronellal, and geraniol [74, 75, 76, 77]. Experimental studies show that inhalation of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil improves mood and cognitive performance in healthy individuals and produces anxiolytic-like effects in animal models, partly through modulation of the GABAergic system, as well as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms [78, 79, 80, 81]. Similarly, Cymbopogon flexuosus and Cymbopogon nardus have demonstrated antidepressant and sedative effects in chronic stress models, supporting their potential application in stress-related disorders and aromatherapy formulations [82, 83, 84, 85].

Beyond Cymbopogon, other Poaceae members such as Vetiveria zizanioides (vetiver) also exhibit central nervous system activity, including anxiolytic, nootropic, and antiepileptic effects in preclinical studies [86, 87]. Research into biogenesis, ecological roles, and conservation of vetiver essential oil further underscores its therapeutic and economic importance in aromatherapy and integrative health practices [88].

5.2 Zingiberaceae

Zingiberaceae (~1,600 tropical species) rhizomes contain ar-turmerone, dehydrozingerone, and eucalyptol, which drive anti-inflammatory/neuroprotective effects. Species within the Zingiberaceae have long been valued in traditional medicine, and growing scientific evidence supports their neuropharmacological potential. Reviews highlight the phytochemical richness and pharmacological relevance of Zingiberaceae species, particularly their rhizome and fruit essential oils, which contain bioactive terpenes and phenolic compounds with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuromodulatory properties [89, 90, 91]. Zingiber officinale (ginger) and its active constituents, such as dehydrozingerone, have demonstrated antidepressant-like effects in animal models, likely through modulation of serotonergic and noradrenergic systems and elevation of brain monoamines [92, 93, 97]. Human studies further suggest that inhaled ginger essential oil can influence psychophysiological parameters, supporting its role in mood regulation [95], while broader screenings confirm the rapid antidepressant-like and neuroprotective potential of several essential oils from this family [94, 96].

Curcuma species, particularly Curcuma longa (turmeric) and Curcuma caesia (black turmeric), have also shown promising neuroprotective and mood-enhancing effects. Their essential oils and major constituents exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, with curcumin notably increasing hippocampal BDNF levels and activating TrkB signaling pathways associated with antidepressant effects [98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103]. Emerging research further explores their influence on gut microbiota, cognitive function, and oxidative stress, alongside applications in aromatherapy and integrative medicine [104, 105, 106, 107]. Studies on essential oils from Alpinia species, such as Alpinia zerumbet and Alpinia galanga, reveal their promising anxiolytic and central nervous system-modulating effects. Inhaled A. zerumbet essential oil further confirms anxiolytic potential through tissue distribution and behavioral impacts in mice. For A. galanga, aromatherapy inhalation effects are explored alongside physicochemical properties, while its biologically active compounds are reviewed for potential health applications. Red galangal rhizome oil highlights a role in slimming aromatherapy, and binding to GABAA receptors via nanoemulsion formulations supports neuroprotective mechanisms [109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115].

5.3 Lauraceae

The Lauraceae family contributes significantly to the biodiversity of tropical and subtropical forests. In the Atlantic Rainforest, they account for 6.4% of tree species richness and 4.3% of abundance, while in China, species richness correlates positively with the aridity index and precipitation, underscoring their ecological adaptability [116, 117]. Members of the Lauraceae are ecologically significant and widely distributed, particularly in biodiverse regions such as the Atlantic Rainforest, where their diversity varies along elevational gradients [117]. Beyond their ecological importance, several Lauraceae species, especially those within the genera Litsea and Cinnamomum, have demonstrated notable neuropharmacological potential. Essential oil from Litsea glaucescens has shown antidepressant and anxiolytic-like effects in animal models, with β-pinene and linalool identified as key active constituents and more recent evidence indicating activation of the BDNF signaling pathway following inhalation [118, 119]. Similarly, Litsea cubeba essential oil has been reported to improve mood, reduce salivary cortisol levels in healthy volunteers, and modulate brain wave activity, supporting its stress-relieving and central nervous system-regulating properties [120, 121, 122].

Research on Cinnamomum species further reinforces the therapeutic promise of Lauraceae-derived essential oils. Cinnamomum camphora essential oil has been found to alleviate depression-like behavior in mice by regulating the Nrf2/HO-1 antioxidant pathway and suppressing inflammatory cytokines, with additional studies demonstrating relaxation and anxiolytic effects in human participants supported by EEG and physiological assessments [123, 124, 125]. Extracts and essential oils from Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Cinnamomum verum have shown mood-enhancing and antidepressant-like effects in both preclinical models and clinical settings, including adjunctive use with fluoxetine [126, 128, 129]. Other species, such as Cinnamomum burmannii and Cinnamomum cassia, exhibit anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and stress-attenuating properties, with compounds like cinnamaldehyde targeting inflammatory mediators including cyclooxygenase-2 [130, 131, 132, 134].

5.4 Rutaceae

The Rutaceae comprises numerous Citrus species whose essential oils and extracts have demonstrated significant anxiolytic, antidepressant, and stress-modulating effects in both preclinical and clinical studies. Within this family, Citrus reticulata (mandarin) has shown consistent antidepressant-like activity. Essential oil from C. reticulata reduced depressive-like behaviors in reserpine- and chronic stress–induced mouse models, with evidence suggesting modulation of monoaminergic neurotransmission and neurotrophic pathways [135,136]. The variety Citrus reticulata var. depressa (Hirami lemon) further demonstrated regulation of the gut-brain axis in a chronic mild stress model, highlighting microbiota-mediated mechanisms in mood improvement [137]. Earlier findings also reported anxiolytic effects and potentiation of sedative responses in mice [138], while recent network pharmacology and molecular docking studies support its interaction with serotonin- and GABA-related targets [139].

Citrus maxima has similarly attracted attention for its neuropsychological benefits. Comprehensive reviews describe its diverse bioactive constituents, including limonoids and flavonoids, with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities relevant to mood disorders [140]. Experimental studies demonstrate antidepressant-like effects of leaf extracts [141], anxiolytic and antidepressant-like actions of the essential oil via GABAergic and serotonergic pathways [142], and anxiolytic, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory effects of seed extracts in animal models [143]. These findings suggest multimodal mechanisms involving neurotransmitter modulation and attenuation of neuroinflammation.

Table 2: Key species, compounds, and mental health benefits

Family	Species	Common Name	Key Compounds	Primary Effects	References
Poaceae	Cymbopogon winterianus	Java citronella	Citronellal, geraniol	Anxiolytic (GABAergic)	[75, 76]
	Cymbopogon nardus	Citronella grass	Citronellal, geraniol	Anxiolytic	[77, 78, 79]
	Cymbopogon citratus	Lemongrass	Citral	GABA/5-HT modulation	[80, 81, 82, 83]
	Cymbopogon flexuosus	East Indian lemongrass	Citral, geraniol	Stress disorders	[84, 85]
	Vetiveria zizanioides	Vetiver	Vetiverol, khusimol, vetivone	Multi-target CNS	[86, 87, 88]
Zingiberaceae	Zingiber officinale	Ginger	Dehydrozingerone	Monoamine elevation	[92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97]
	Curcuma longa	Turmeric	Ar-turmerone	Neuroprotective	[98, 99, 100,　101, 102]
	Curcuma caesia	Black turmeric	Camphor, ar-turmerone	Antidepressant/ anxiolytic	[103, 104, 105, 106, 107]
	Alpinia zerumbet	Shell ginger	1,8-Cineole	Anxiolytic	[108, 109, 110, 111]
	Alpinia galanga	Galangal	Eucalyptol, α-terpineol	Antidepressant-like	[112, 113, 114, 115]
Lauraceae	Litsea glaucescens	Aromatic laurel	β-Pinene, linalool	Antidepressant/ anxiolytic	[116, 117, 118, 119]
	Litsea cubeba	May chang	Geranial, neral, d-limonene	Anxiolytic (inhalation)	[120, 121, 122]
	Cinnamomum camphora	Camphor tree	Camphor, 1,8-cineole	Anxiolytic/ antidepressant	[123, 124, 125]
	Cinnamomum zeylanicum	True cinnamon	Cinnamaldehyde, eugenol	Anxiety/ depression reduction	[126, 127]
	Cinnamomum verum	True cinnamon	Cinnamaldehyde	Antidepressant-like	[128, 129]
	Cinnamomum burmannii	Indonesian cinnamon	Cinnamaldehyde, coumarin	Antidepressant (stress)	[130, 131]
	Cinnamomum cassia	Chinese cinnamon	Trans-cinnamaldehyde	Comparable to standards	[132, 133, 134]
Rutaceae	Citrus reticulata	Mandarin orange	d-Limonene	Antidepressant (inhalation)	[135, 136, 137, 138, 139]
	Citrus maxima	Pomelo	Limonene	Anxiolytic/ antidepressant	[140, 141, 142, 143]
	Citrus aurantium	Bitter orange	Limonene, citral	Anxiolytic (clinical)	[144, 145, 146,　147]
	Citrus hystrix	Kaffir lime	Citronellal, limonene, β-pinene	Mood-enhancing	[148, 149, 150,　151]
	Citrus sinensis	Sweet orange	Limonene	Anxiolytic (human)	[152, 153, 154, 155]

Another extensively studied species is Citrus aurantium. Clinical evidence indicates that aromatherapy with C. aurantium essential oil significantly reduces depression, stress, and anxiety, including in pregnant women in randomized controlled trials [144]. Preclinical investigations confirm anxiolytic effects mediated partly through GABAergic pathways [145], while broader phytochemical reviews emphasize its therapeutic potential alongside safety considerations [146]. Recent mechanistic research further demonstrates that C. aurantium essential oil ameliorates chronic stress–induced hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis hyperactivity and synaptic deficits via modulation of the cAMP/PKA/Grin2b signaling pathway [147].

Citrus hystrix is recognized for both nutritional and medicinal value, with reviews detailing its essential oil composition and health-related applications [148,149]. Human studies report stimulating and mood-enhancing effects following inhalation [150], and technological reviews highlight its extraction methods and incorporation into healthcare products [151]. Experimental models further demonstrate emotional soothing effects of limonene-based citrus essential oil formulations [152].

Finally, Citrus sinensis (sweet orange) exhibits well-documented anxiolytic and antidepressant-like properties. Animal studies reveal involvement of nitrergic neurotransmission in its anxiolytic-like effects [153], while limonene, its principal constituent, contributes significantly to antidepressant-like activity [154]. Clinical applications include aromatherapy during labor, where sweet orange oil effectively reduced anxiety and pain perception [155].

Table 2 summarizes key species, bioactive compounds, and mental health benefits. Evidence strength varies from preclinical dominance to emerging clinical translation.

Among the families, Rutaceae shows the strongest translational relevance with supportive human studies, Lauraceae and Zingiberaceae provide consistent preclinical and mechanistic evidence, and Poaceae demonstrates emerging promise. Despite encouraging findings, the predominance of animal studies, chemotype variability, and methodological inconsistencies highlight the need for standardized protocols and well-designed clinical trials. Overall, these aromatic plant families represent valuable dual-purpose bioresources with potential applications in both sustainable agriculture and complementary mental health therapeutics.

6. Critical appraisal, limitations, and future directions

This review systematically evaluated evidence supporting the neuropsychological potential of essential oils derived from the Poaceae, Zingiberaceae, Lauraceae, and Rutaceae. Collectively, these families demonstrate reproducible anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects in preclinical models, supported by mechanistic evidence involving monoaminergic and GABAergic modulation, neurotrophic signaling, HPA-axis regulation, and anti-inflammatory activity. The convergence of phytochemistry and neurobiology represents a major strength of the field, particularly where bioactive constituents have been linked to defined molecular targets.

Despite these advances, several limitations constrain translational interpretation. First, the evidence base remains predominantly preclinical, with relatively few large-scale, randomized, placebo-controlled human trials. Existing clinical studies, most often involving inhalation aromatherapy, tend to be short-term and heterogeneous in design, limiting conclusions regarding efficacy, dose optimization, durability of response, and safety. Second, essential oil composition is inherently variable, influenced by chemotype, environmental conditions, cultivation practices, and extraction methods. This chemical variability complicates reproducibility and cross-study comparisons and underscores the need for standardized phytochemical profiling and quality control frameworks. Third, methodological heterogeneity in behavioral paradigms, treatment regimens, and outcome measures reduces comparability across studies and limits meta-analytic integration.

Future research should focus on three strategic priorities. (1) Conducting rigorously designed human trials with standardized formulations and administration protocols to establish clinical relevance. (2) Integrating pharmacokinetic, metabolomic, and system-biology approaches to clarify mechanisms of action and central nervous system bioavailability. (3) Developing agro-industrial pipelines that ensure chemical reproducibility from cultivation to finished product, thereby bridging agricultural science with clinical translation. Such multidisciplinary integration will be essential for transforming promising preclinical findings into scalable, evidence-based interventions.

7. Conclusion

In summary, aromatic plants from the Poaceae, Zingiberaceae, Lauraceae, and Rutaceae families represent biologically active and strategically valuable resources for complementary mental health support. Their essential oils contain diverse phytochemicals capable of modulating interconnected neurobiological pathways associated with depression and anxiety. Comparative synthesis indicates varying degrees of translational maturity across families, with some supported by emerging clinical data and others contributing deeper mechanistic insight.

While current evidence strongly supports therapeutic potential, clinical integration will depend on methodological standardization, chemical consistency, and robust human validation. With coordinated efforts across phytochemistry, neuroscience, agronomy, and clinical research, these aromatic plant resources have the capacity to evolve from traditional remedies into scientifically grounded, sustainable tools for supporting global mental health.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Harlinda Kuspradini: Conceptualization, methodology, writing-original draft, supervision, resources and data curation, writing-review and editing. Yurika Sastyarina: Formal analysis, writing-original draft, visualization. Ike Anggraeni: Formal analysis, writing-original draft. Rina Rifayanti: Writing-original draft, formal analysis, visualization. Agmi Sinta Putri: Literature review, writing-original draft, writing-review editing. Ritbey Ruga: Literature review, writing-original draft, writing-review editing. Saat Egra: Literature review, writing-original draft, writing-review editing. Irmanida Batubara: Conceptualization, writing-original draft. Sahidin: Conceptualization, writing-original draft. Femi Earnestly: Conceptualization, writing-original draft. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgement

The authors thank the Directorate General of Higher Education, Research, and Technology, Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology, Republic of Indonesia, for funding this research under the 2024 KATALIS Research Program implementation contract (No. DIPA-023.17.1.690523/2024).

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