This research was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of task composition, thought to impact language learners' focus on form. The research involved 20 beginner and 20 intermediate Japanese language students at an American university. In each level group, the student worked in pairs and completed the tasks of giving directions and planning a trip. The tasks had the following compositions: Open with many elements, open with few elements, closed with many elements, and closed with few elements. The frequency of occurrence of Language Related Episodes (Swain & Lapkin, 1998) was used to determine whether or not the differences in tasks affected students' focus on language form.

From the result, it was understood that the effects on focus on language form differ due to the occurrence of interplay caused by the composition of elements in each task, as well as the differences in the degree of difficulty of the tasks based on the composition of said factors (Robinson, 2001a).

Previous studies (Pica, Kanagy and Falodun, 1993; Robinson, 2001a) showed that closed tasks, compared to open tasks, and tasks with more elements, compared to tasks with fewer elements, had a greater effect on focus on language forms. In contrast, the result of this research brings to attention the fact that the various characteristics discovered in previous researches may not have a synergetic effect of the two factors as believed.

The value of teaching critical reading has become the focus of attention in recent years. However, the practice of teaching critical reading has not spread widely throughout the Japanese education system because 'Interpretation' is not adequately positioned in the theory of teaching critical reading. Therefore, I use Nobuyoshi Morita's theory that typifies the theory of teaching critical reading in Japan, as an object of this study. I examined how 'Interpretation' is positioned in the theory and analyze 'Evaluation' an essential concept in Morita's theory. As a result I clarify that 'Interpretation' does have a place but for the most part is not the main focus in Morita's theory. I reconstructed the components obtained by analysis as the reading process and argue the importance of positioning 'Interpretation' in the theory of teaching critical reading. I also propose the establishment of the expository text teaching theory.

Accountability and responsibility in education have been urged by stakeholders such as parents, community members, and the society. These stakeholders demand quality and comprehensibility in school education. However, the features of education are often inconsistent with the concepts of accountability and responsibility, because the effects of education tend to be beyond teachers' intentions. Thus, education has a tragic sense, and unfortunately is dependent on luck. This study aims to elaborate on the concept of commitment, and on what is needed to satisfy stakeholders' expectations, by referring to G. E. M. Anscombe's principle of side effects. The principle requires agents to distinguish between "intending" and "not intending but foreseeing" their actions, and to identify their actions. The principle supports the agents, even if their actions result in negative consequences. Anscombe's discussion on the principle can be seen as the basis for the concept of commitment requiring stakeholders' agreement. With the stakeholders' approval, teachers' conduct can satisfy stakeholders' expectations. Therefore, under this condition, teachers' commitment can be an alternative to the accountability and responsibility.