Visual local motion is detected from spatiotemporal correlations of luminance and other visual feature within a small receptive field, but the detected motion is onedimensional: it cannot uniquely determine two-dimensional motion direction and speed. Although pri-mates solve this problem by integrating local motion components, few studies have examined the process of motion integration in other lineages, and no phylogenetic and ecological discussions have been made through species comparisons. This paper presents my studies showing from behavioral experiments that pigeons (Columba livia) differ from primates in their visual motion integration. I review the studies investigating motion integration in other species and discuss the factors that would cause the species difference of motion integration. I propose the hypothesis that the species difference of motion integration is related to the ability to track prey and other moving objects precisely and that the degree of orientation selectivity in early visual areas and the degree of development of two visual pathways from the retina underlie the species difference.

The hallmark of eusocial insects, such as honeybees, ants, and termites, is the division of labor among colony members, which is a crucial feature in realizing ecological success in various environments. A colony generally comprises two subgroups, known as castes, that are related to different tasks: the reproductive caste, which is responsible for reproduction, and the non-reproductive worker caste, which performs all other tasks. Moreover, workers are engaged in different tasks in the colony. Maintenance mechanisms of the division of labor among workers have been extensively studied, from the individual to the colony level. Here, we review recent advances in the maintenance mechanisms of the division of labor. In particular, we focus on how workers’ behavioral plasticity shapes the division of labor as a group level phenotype. First, we explain two mechanisms that maintain the division of labor, i.e., age polyethism and flexible task allocation, and then introduce the method to quantify the degree of division of labor. Second, we explore the response threshold involved in workers’ decision-making and how it enables them to perform specific tasks, resulting in the division of labor. Third, we summarize the physiological basis of the division of labor, with a particular focus on juvenile hormone, Vitellogenin, and Vitellogenin-related genes. Fourth, we discuss the mechanisms of task shifting in workers, which is a crucial factor in reorganizing the division of labor in fluctuating environments. Finally, we describe the future directions of research into the division of labor in insect societies.