This study examines how multiformity of self-disclosure is associated with friendship, perceived self-disclosure, and adaptation in adolescents. Therefore, surveys were administered to 403 college students (152 males, 249 females, and 2 unknown). The cluster analysis based on the friendship scale yielded three major clusters, namely, adolescents who exhibited low hyperthymia-like tendencies among their friends and high withdrawal into themselves (Cluster 1), adolescents who exhibited low withdrawal into themselves and high hyperthymia-like tendencies among their friends (Cluster 2), and adolescents who exhibited high tendencies of being careful regarding not intruding upon their friends (Cluster 3). The results of the analysis revealed that the adolescents in Cluster 1 had lower multiformity of self-disclosure than those who belonged to the other clusters, and the adolescents in Cluster 2 had higher self-esteem than those in the other clusters. Moreover, multiformity relationships were observed in adolescents who related to defensive friendship (Cluster 1) and who had cheerful relationships (Cluster 2); however, the former possessed lower self-esteem. Hence, these findings suggest that multiformity relationships do not facilitate adequation among defensive adolescents.

In this study, an activity report over a two-year period by one undergraduate student who participated in campus aid (CA) activity was analyzed by quantitative text analysis, and professional development process during the “phase of the lay helper” was conducted. By the co-occurrence network, reflection on the content of CA activity, the involvement with high school students and the listening attitude were consistently reported over a two-year period. First year, the strong interest for the students who came to the CA room, the concern of whether the CA room was recognized as a “place” in the school, the continuous visit of students and the confusions about the position of CA within the school organization ware occurred. Second year, the content of the description about the students’ awareness of their behavior became expander, and the reflective centered on the “sense of distance” was increased. In addition, as a result of correspondence analysis, it was suggested that the process of professional development in the “phase of the lay helper” could be reviewed from the two perspectives, “psychological distance” and “interest, concern and direction of thinking”. It will be necessary to increase the number of samples and accumulate more research on CA.

This study examines the effect of underlining key points to promote the comprehension of analogical problems in sentence form. The problems used convergent storylines that led to a solution. In Experiment 1, when learning an analogical story, we underlined the parts of the story that were involved in finding the solution, and also underlined the key story points. As a result, the points emphasized by underlining did not promote knowledge acquisition, but activities involved in underline creation did promote the acquisition of knowledge. In Experiment 2, four groups were set up to examine the cognitive effects of underlining. The first group was provided with instructions that prompted the underlining process. The second group was provided with instructions underlined the key story points with time limit. The third group first compared the importance of the essential sentences, and then created the underlines. The fourth group was asked to only summarize the sentences. Results showed that problem-solving performance was somewhat enhanced by asking subjects to perform deep processing of the underlined part of the story. Results also indicated that when underlining was performed while comparing important story parts with others, it was also effective. Therefore, it could be understood that underlining facilitated deep-cognitive processing in the learner. Moreover, there was also an effect that promoted the reconstruction of knowledge. Finally, based on past cognitive research, the effect on the cognitive process of seeing underlined text and when creating underlining was discussed.

To define adaptive dependence in characteristics of independence and autonomy, we have reconstructed a scale that based on the previous autonomy scales (Hishida et al. 2010, 2011a and 2014). A result of a survey answered by 1300 subjects (661 males and 639 females; from teens to forties, average age of 35.69) showed that this scale was able to extract seven factors: “uniqueness”, “future prospect”, “amae”, “susceptibility to influence”, “excessive hard work”, “emotion control” and, “recognition of independence”. Further individual analysis of these seven factors revealed the presence of generational difference in five factors: “uniqueness”, “amae”, “susceptibility to influence”, “excessive hard work”，and “emotion control”. These data indicate that independence and autonomy are related to development and environment, as well as adaptive dependence, which is different from “amae”.

In this study, we developed a method to apply the adult odor test to children and measured the actual odor identification in 4- to 6-year-old children using the adult odor test method. The Odor Stick Identification Test for the Japanese (OSIT–J) was used to test the ability to identify 12 familiar odors. Results showed that the odor identification task had a response rate of 45.2±13.8%, which was the same as that of the previous study despite the inclusion of odor stimuli that children had little contact experience with. In relation to vocabulary identification task and contact experience scores, vocabulary identification score was higher than all odor identification scores, indicating a tendency to not be able to identify the odor as well when the target was unknown. We examined the relationship between tasks, and there was a significant trend only in the odor identification and vocabulary identification scores (r = 0.42, p = 0.07). The present study showed that 4- to 6-year-old children were able to understand and carry out the OSIT–J procedures by adding and confirming these procedures to the adult olfactory tests as well.