Was the 1982 anti-liquor movement in Anantnag (South Kashmir) a secular citizens' movement or a fundamentalist violence against Hindu minorities? Kashmir's local Urdu press and all-India English press had framed the incident differently, but both claimed one's viewpoint as secular. Now contentious was the hidden, majoritarian agenda beneath the professed ‘secular’ stand: all-India papers represented the Hindu majority of India, while Kashmir's local paper did the Muslim majority of Kashmir. This paper examines how the majoritarian agenda of each worked in reporting the anti-liquor movement.
In sum, all-India papers reported that the ‘communal’ attack on liquor shops in Anantnag, which were incidentally all owned by Hindus (Kashmiri Pandits), was the handiwork of Jama ‘at-e Islami, which actually played only a secondary role in the incident. The consequence of this tendentious reporting was the indiscriminate arrest and alienation of Muslim separatists in Kashmir. On the other hand, Kashmir's local papers reported that the anti-liquor movement in Anantnag was a non-communal citizens' movement, representing the conscience of majority of the townsfolk. As a result of such reporting, the sufferings of minority Hindus tended to be ignored by the town's Muslim majority.
By the early 1980s, the structure of discourse in Indian press had become increasingly complex: now the self-claimed ‘secular’ discourse could contain covertly majoritarian and communal stance. When ‘secular for all’ neutrality is difficult to attain even in media discourse, and ‘secular for India’ and ‘secular for Kashmir’ remain far from each other, the discord called Kashmir conflict is to linger on.

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This paper explores to show the actual activities of Tibetan pop musicians by focusing on the networks of commercial activities of Tibetan Pop musicians living in India and Nepal. This paper aims to describe and analyze the musicians’ actual lives and networks which previous studies exploring musicians’ activities in terms of representation and the construction of a group identity have not argued enough, and, at the same time, to show a sketch of the recent situation surrounding Tibetan refugees. That is, this paper suggests that we need to focus on musicians’ commercial activities as a foundation to attempt to understand the actual situation surrounding the Tibetan refugees living in India and Nepal. Because of the transformation of media environment surrounding them and so on, musicians have been pursuing the activities based on the networks of commercial activities which has been established by Tsering Gyurmey since the late 1990s and sometimes uniquely developed by each musician. Musicians’ lives depend on them so much in order to survive and these networks reflect what the situation they live is and how they manage to survive as musicians in India and Nepal. On the other hand, such persons like organizers, their fans and Nepali merchants who pay money to musicians’ activities add unique meanings to their musical activities. They utilize the networks which musicians have established to accomplish each purpose. This paper argues that such practices contribute to the formation of the incompatible situation of the networks of commercial activities surrounding Tibetan Pop and of the Tibetan refugees and diverse actors surrounding them. This paper shows the facets of musicians as a vocation, the duality of the networks of commercial activities and the incompatible situation, which is based on its duality, of the Tibetan refugees and persons surrounding them by describing and analyzing the the networks of commercial activities by musicians.

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This paper examines the role of technologies of communication in the development of the newspaper press in nineteenth-century India, focusing particularly on electric telegraphy and its application to news reporting. The electric telegraph was introduced to India during the mid-nineteenth century and became celebrated as a device which could conquer both time and space by making possible the transmission of intelligence at speeds previously unheard of, both in India and between Britain and India. The global expansion of the telegraph network during the second half of the nineteenth century added a new dimension to the exchange of information between Asia and Europe; the newspaper press, along with the colonial administration and the mercantile community of India, was among the earliest and most enthusiastic users of telegraphy. This paper traces the construction and development of the telegraph network during the second half of the nineteenth century and uses examples from a selection of English-language newspapers to discuss the role of technologies of communication in shaping news reporting in colonial India. It argues that the nineteenth century was a period of transition in the history of English-language news reporting, in the sense that changes were gradual rather than revolutionary and depended on a host of technological, social and political factors.

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