This study examines the role, qualities, and actions of judges in philosophical argumentation and judicial contexts, based on classical Indian philosophical texts and Dharma literature. Section 2 organizes terminologies and concepts describing debate settings in ancient India, drawing from early Nyāya and Buddhist logical texts and the Dharmasūtras. Sections 3 and 4 focus on the concepts of the “inquirer”（prāśnika）and the “four-element”（caturaṅga）found in Buddhist and Jain texts, analyzing the position of judges in philosophical argumentation. Section 5 explores terms related to assemblies or courts（sabhā ）as they appear in both philosophical and Dharma texts. Section 6 addresses the norms concerning the qualities and actions of judges in philosophical argumentation and their connection to Dharma literature. Through this analysis, this study aims to demonstrate shifts in the concept of judges from the sectarian and cultural perspectives, highlighting the usefulness of comparing these textual traditions to understand the framework of philosophical discourse in classical India.

While Buddhism originated in South Asia, the scarcity of materials from mainland India necessitates a discussion of its development in India by consulting materials that can provide insights into both the era and the geographical context. This paper focuses on the Thirty-Seven Dharmas Associated with Awakening（三十七菩提分法）, which encompass the seven sets of ethical practices. It investigates archaeological findings from Central and Southeast Asia and Chinese Buddhist scriptures preserved in East Asia that all date back to before the sixth century. These sources reveal how the Thirty-Seven Dharmas were perceived as symbolic representations of the Buddha’s teachings. Furthermore, the study analyses Pāli scriptures and early Chinese Buddhist translations predating the sixth century, comparing them with Sanskrit and Gandhāran manuscripts. This comparative study illustrates the widespread dissemination of the Thirty-Seven Dharmas across the pre-sixthcentury Buddhist world. They were universally recognized as the symbols of the teachings of the Buddha, contributing to a unified understanding across diverse regions. By integrating archaeological evidence and textual analysis, this paper illuminates the pivotal role of the Thirty-Seven Dharmas in shaping Buddhist doctrine at a relatively early stage and demonstrates that discussions of the seven sets circulated concurrently throughout South Asia. These findings suggest that the idea of the seven sets as symbolic representations of the Dharma originated in South Asia and evolved into a significant intellectual trend that encompassed the entirety of the Buddhist world before the sixth century.