The aim of this study is to analyze the construction of the curriculum and the contents of fractions in the arithmetic textbooks published in the period of textbook authorization system in the Meiji era (1886-1904). In this study, we divide the above-mentioned period into two periods. The first period is from 1886 to 1900. The first half of this period (1886-1894) is characterised by systematic construction of contents, although it sees partial changes in the latter half of the period (1894-1900). The second period begins in 1900 and ends in 1904. This period is characterised by the emergence of a thoroughly different method and order in the construction of contents from the ones in the first period. In this paper, we limit our scope of study to the first half of the first period, scince the curriculum and the contents of the textbooks published in these years have a number of important implications to the current arithmetic education. In the previous studies, the arithmetic textbooks published from 1886 to 1904 are characterised in terms of diversity. However this is not well supported by means of textbook analysis. Although the study on the textbooks of this period seems insufficient, it does not mean that the textbooks of this period are not worth studying. On the contrary, this paper will show that the curriculum and the contents of the textbooks in this period should provide us with a number of important implications for the development of today's arithmetic education. Arithmetic education has as its major components rational number (natural number, fractions and decimals) and their four arithmetical operations. In this paper, however, we limit our scope of inquiry to fractions and their addition and subtraction. We analyze the contents of the textbooks published from 1886 to 1894 based on the following viewpoints : (1) The relation between the properties of integral numbers and fractions ; (2) The method and the order in the construction of contents of fractions ; (3) The explanation of the definition of fractions at the introductory stage ; (4) The treatment of the properties of fractions and its position in the construction of contents of fractions ; (5) The viewpoints and the methods of the construction of the calculation system of addition and subtruction. We obtain the following results from the content analysis of textbooks ; (1) The properties of integral numbers are planned to be taught independently from the teaching of fractions in the curriculum. (2) The contents of fractions is systematically constructed. It is arranged in the order of the definition, properties, order and the four arithmetical operations. (3) The definition of fractions is based on the division aspect of fractions. Furthermore, some textbooks include explanations on the ratio aspect of fractions and even try to give unifying explanations of these two aspects. (4) The contents of properties and order of fractions are constructed all together under the category of "transformation of fractions" and it is planned to be taught before the four arithmetical operations. (5) The contents of addition and subtruction of fractions are constructed mainly from the viewpoint of the silhouette. The contents of each operation is constructed all together. The shortest course is set out for an acquisition of the algorism of addition and subtraction. And the exercises given in the textbook include the important points of the course. These facts show that the textbooks in this period adopted the viewpoint that the aim of arithmetic education is to teach mathematics as a science.

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This paper examines the mathematics education of secondary schools in wartime, 1940-1945, by comparing the authorized textbooks on the syllabus of teaching issued in 1942 with those in 1931. The features of mathematics education in wartime were as follows. Firstly, the textbooks in wartime contained a number of topics in which mathematical symbols described the natural and social world. But these sorts of topics had been already appeared in textbooks before. In the Perry movement many educators insisted to link mathematics to the natural and social sciences, so its influence effected on mathematics education in wartime. Secondly, however, the textbooks in wartime were filled with another type of topics to optimize solutions and make rational designs. These topics were absent from previous textbooks. The authors of the textbooks in wartime attached importance to the topics of optimization not only in the differential of functions, but in all the content of mathematics of secondary schools. Thirdly, the topics in the textbooks in wartime were organized in such a systematic way as to present students the efficacy of mathematics for problem solving in real situation. A series of exercises in the textbooks was set up on an assumption that students would have some experience in getting more precise solutions without pains by means of more complicated conception of mathematics. Lastly, before the wartime, mathematics textbooks had adopted a classical style, in which typical exercises and their answers occupied most of pages of a textbook. But in wartime, this style of arranging textbooks changed into a workbook style. The writers of them expected that students should discover some relations and conceptions of mathematics, rather than imitate the paradigmatic answers. For example, making a maximum box in capacity from a square paper, students learned such conceptions as the differential of the cubic functions. But this change of the textbooks has been over-exaggerated until now. In fact, the textbooks in workbook style were already written and published by the teachers in the middle school attached to Hiroshima Higher Normal School in 1930's. The mathematics education in wartime was shaped through a radical movement that was started by Kinnosuke Ogura, a mathematician, and flourished at Hiroshima Higher Normal School under his influence. Hiroshima Higher Normal School stood out of the center of the 1920s' Perry movement, but leaded a new trend of mathematics education in the late of 1930's. The education in wartime in general has been characterized as fanatical nationalism, and the nationalism has been recognized as contents about the national flag or weapons in the textbooks. But in mathematics education, this character at wartime emerged according to a thought of technocracy. The wartime was the first time for secondary school students to learn conception of probability. They learned it by finding the probability that babies would die in a year.

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The purpose of this study is to clarify the principles that determined the curriculum of compulsory education during parts of the Meiji Era (1868-1912) through analyzing the discussions on the introduction of "content subjects" -such as geography, history, and science- into the curriculum of compulsory education. The curriculum of elementary school, according to the Code of Education issued in 1872, was informally thought of as compulsory, and included not only reading, writing, and arithmetic but also content subjects, e.g. geography, history, and science. However, in 1880, compulsory enrollment was reduced from eight years to three, and leaning geography and science began in the fourth grade at that time, these content subjects were only included in upper grades that were not compulsory: higher elementary and secondary school. Later, a four-year compulsory education act was issued in 1886, students did not begin to study geography and science until fifth grade, which was non-compulsory. At that point, the curriculum of compulsory education was limited to reading, writing, and arithmetic, moral training, and physical training, until the term for compulsory education was extended to six years in 1907, thereby including content subjects in its last two years. The main theme of this paper focuses on opinions and reasons given by two main groups: one which argued that content subjects should be made compulsory, and the other which resisted it, during the discussions which precluded the changes in the curriculum of compulsory education each time. Discussions about the treatment of content subjects in the curriculum of compulsory education mainly focused on the two following points: whether or not content subjects should be required, and whether or not content subject material should be separated from the Japanese reading textbook. As for the first issue, it can be seen that the reasons why content subjects were not required have changed from term to term. In the 1880s, when the school attendance rate was still only between 40% and 50%, the Ministry of Education believed that increasing the number of subjects taught would prevent more children from going to school. Then, in the beginning of the 1890s, a rise in school attendance allowed focus to shift to the problem that leaning placed a burden on children. This serious problem began to influence the policy regarding the curriculum of compulsory education. Regarding the second issue, geography, history, and science had been recognized as necessary components in compulsory education with the aim of forming a nation of dutiful people. However, as a result of the problems in school attendance, the issue of the burden placed on children, and the idea that reading, writing, and arithmetic were the most important subjects, the Japanese reading textbook ultimately continued to include material from content subjects. Additionally, the prolongation of compulsory education to six years helped solve the above two problems. At this point, a third issue arose. A plan was needed to ensure that these content subjects were taught efficiently and would demonstrate a practicality that could be applied to daily vocational life after graduation. While in addition to literacy and arithmetic, content subjects had been approved as practical ones, the curriculum of compulsory education was continually based on the premise that children would not go on to study in secondary schools. In conclusion, two themes remained constant in the debate over compulsory education: Practicality and Efficiency. The effects these two principles had on the development of curriculum and national character throughout the Meiji Era will be explored in depth in this paper.

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The aim of this paper is to clarify and examine characteristics of curriculum reconstruction in the Elementary School attached Akashi Women's Normal School in the 1930s, which is one of the most remarkable achievements at the rising period of the curriculum reconstruction movement in prewar Japan. This school began to innovate the national curriculum in 1927, after its head teacher, Heiji OIKAWA (1875-1939), returned from his stay in Europe and U.S.A. for the purpose of educational research. His ideal plan of the elementary school curriculum was not based on such existing subjects as national history and mathematics, but on the "life units" that should be constructed to make children understand various dimensions of life ways they were facing in their daily lives. However, since educational contents of elementary school were strongly controlled by the state and the textbooks were limited to those published by the Ministry of Education, the teachers had to face difficulty of building up relations between the national curriculum and the one constructed on "life units" studies. To overcome this difficulty, they developed "life unit study based on the subject" and made them coexist with the ordinary "life unit" studies in the curriculum as follows; (1) Ordinary "life unit" studies were, as a whole, adopted in the lower classes and "life unit study based on the subject" in the upper-grade (2) The number of ordinary "life unit" studies increased after 1936, the year when Oikawa left the school. The characteristics of "life unit study based on the subject", which Oikawa recommended, was in the formation of the children's attitudes necessary for understanding life ways through various activities, while enabling them to know the content of the existing subject. After analyzing the general feature of the school curriculum, this paper took up some teaching plans of life unit studies base on national history as a case-study. Those plans can be categorized into three groups. (1) The ones which focused on the customary way of interpreting the textbook. (2) The ones promoting children's various study activities, but ending in the confirmation of the knowledge of the textbook. (3) The ones trying to deepen children's understanding of life ways in their daily lives, and, at the same time, make them acquire the skills for historical research through various activities. The principle of teaching plans were not necessary unified throughout the school. Some of them were obviously influenced by the existence of national textbooks and the necessity of making children remember them as a preparation for the entrances examinations of the secondary schools. But those attempts that tried to unify the entire curriculum by making a bridge between the existing subjects and the innovative "life unit" studies can be highly evaluated, considering the main trend of the curriculum reconstruction movement was escaping that difficulty by limiting the "life unit" studies only to the lower classes and not trying to reconstruct the existing subjects.

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Generally it is believed that the American Herbartianism disappeared in 1902, when N.S.S.S.E. (N.S.S.E.) started. But they produced the 'Project Method' in 1920's. What does it mean? They suggested some effective plans for actual class instructions even in 20th century. I am sure that we need to change our understanding of the span and epoch divisions of the American Herbartian Movement. Though many of the previous researchers believed the span was from 1887 to 1902, it should be thought to be from 1887 to 1929, when C.A.McMurry died and the books and articles by Herbartians disappeared completely. Now the intention of this study is to make clear the process that they imported and applied formal steps to the recitation system, which had been very popular in America in the second half of 19th century. There are some difference between the formal steps of America and those of Germany. Those of America contained not only continuous processes of thought but also practical applications to real life and the like. These ideas different from those of German systems had definite influence upon the essence of 'Project Method' in spite of criticism to formal steps themselves. The formal steps produced by C.A.McMurry appears to resemble those by W.Rein in Germany. C.A.McMurry, who was the most famous Herbatian in U.S.A., explained the formal steps based on the idea of 'apperception', which, he believed, means psychologically assimilation or association and develops the idea of 'unknown to known'. It is generally said that formal steps were the method which was very artificial and literally formal because they were introduced to meet the overcrowded curriculum. However, this conception is wrong, for they tried to overcome the overcrowded curriculum problem by proposing their curriculum theory such as concentration and culture epoch theory and they introduced formal steps to meet the demand of the pupils' psychological development of thought. The teaching method such as formal steps preceded the curriculum theory which was their outstanding trait. This means that their intention was to overcome the previous method of instruction, which paid no attention to the natural order of child's thought process.

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There was a revision of Course of Studies in Taiwan High School in 1995. Japanese is the second foreign language chosen by the second grade and third grade students. The approach of curriculum development is indicated by Berwick (1989). It is the process that teachers should first analyze learner needs, set up learning objectives based on needs, design syllabus and put activities into practice and evaluates. To sum up, this approach is named Needs-Based Curriculum Development (NBCD). In my needs-analysis (1998), students expect learning Language Learning Strategies (LLS) will be experienced in the Japanese curriculum, and teachers recognize that the training of LLS is very important to language curriculum development. Moreover, students have high beliefs with regard to autonomy. But there were no autonomous activities, which were experienced by students. In order to improving the situation, The purpose of this paper is to establish a framework of fostering autonomy, which is appropriate for the curriculum development of Japanese Language Teaching and put the curriculum into practice. Furthermore, according to a replicated survey, the change of students' autonomy and the problem of curriculum were brought to light. In this research, there were some fruits which student continue learning Japanese in the future, and acquire some competence of autonomy in NBCD.

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The purpose of this paper is to describe the framework of learning, which improves children's daily human relations, by examining Life Skills Development Program done in a public elementary school in Tokyo. Now in Japan, many violence cases done by children are reported very often. Some researchers pointed out that the number of friends with whom children play has decreased so severely in this some decades. This means that recent children have less chances of their socialization than before. Now we are facing the need to find the effective way to improve children's daily human relations. We are supposed to improve children's human relations at Extraclass Activities in elementary schools. However, we have not found the effective way to deal with the problems related to recent children's corrupting human relations yet. For the learning of human relations at schools, many teachers only try to construct the norm for making good relations in their classes. The problem here is that the norm for children's relations inside the classroom doesn't always effect their daily relations. To improve daily human relations, it is important for children to apply the norm of good relations to their daily activities with people like their friends. Considering this importance, we have to find the framework of learning which includes the process of application of the norm to children's daily activities. To describe the framework of the learning of human relations with children's application to their daily life, the research was done on the case of a public elementary school in Tokyo. This school uses the Life Skills Development Program to improve children's daily human relations. The focuses of this research were on, (1) what kind of relationships should the people have with children to show children the norm of the program effectively, and (2) what kind of setting does this program prepare for the children to apply the norm to their daily human relations. The followings were found through the research on this case. (1) In this case, children got the norm of "respecting each other" from teachers and parents who were seen as children's "significant others." (2) For children's application of the norm to their daily activities, this case succeeded to prepare children with the context of "playing" inside of the school. Teachers made good use of Extraclass Activities to prepare this "playing" context. (3) Children got the norm of "respecting each other" and they decided their behaviors to others according to this norm.

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The purpose of this study is to consider the fundamental factors in order to the selection of teaching contents. The concepts of ion in science which choose a subject for hand-picked in the new course of study by the ministry of education was adopted for that purpose. We picked up the six contents to consider. The first is the changes in the ion concept of the course of study. The second is the standard of the hand-picked which is given by the Central Council for Education. The third is a controversy in the science education profession. The fourth is the problems how to teach the ion concept. The fifth is the problems how students understand the ion concept. The sixth is that the ion concept what place among contemporary society. On the discussion described above, I suggested the following two conclusions of this study. The first is that we should select the teaching.contents from the synthetic view, which we have discussed, rather than from the standpoint of whether or not the content is difficult for students to study. The second is that the instruction of the ion concept in science is necessary as a teaching content in the level of compulsory education.

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The influx of "newcomer" children into classrooms in Japanese public schools brought Japanese teachers to deal with the difficulties and problems these children face in learning and participating in classroom communication. The teachers tend to regard the children's difficulties and problems in classroom as the children's handicap in the Japanese language and so to focus their own efforts on improving the children's language ability. The teachers' treatment helps the children adapt to the life in classroom somehow. However, it has been pointed out somewhere (Tsuneyoshi, R. 1998) that such a way of treating "newcomer" children functions in a way to situate them in a lower position or even marginalize them in classroom. The stress on improvement of "newcomer" children's language ability is observed not only in teachers' practice in classroom but also in the current research trend. Researchers have focused on improving the children's Japanese ability in addressing the issues on "newcomer" children learning and participating in classroom. It should be noted, however, that the "hidden" issue in classroom would not be addressed if the research focuses only on the children's language ability. In other words, there is some limitation in the current way of teachers' practice in multicultural classroom as well as the current research trend. In this paper, the author attempts to show a theoretical framework to conduct case studies on teachers' role in Japanese multicultural classroom. As the author's interest is in the way teachers deal with various cultural differences, either implicit or explicit, in a communication process, and the effects of teachers' treatment on the relationship between "newcomer" children and other children in classroom, the concept of border is referred to. The concept has been developed by some sociolinguists and educational anthropologists in the United States (i.e. McDermott, R. P. & Gospodinoff, K., Erickson, F. etc). According to them, a border is an arbitrary line formed by somebody along some cultural difference. A person is treated differently, depending on which side of the border he/she is located in. The author's discussion is twofold. First, the aspect of implicit/covert/invisible culture as well as explicit/overt/visible culture (Hall, E. 1959) is important in exploring teachers' cognition and treatment of cultural differences in classroom. Teachers tend to deal with "newcomer" children's explicit cultural traits (e.g. language). Yet, even a slight difference in implicit culture (e.g. standards of judgment according to which one's own behavior is shaped and the other's evaluated) may have a great effect on the "newcomer" children learning and participating in classroom communication. Furthermore, such difference may cause some conflict or tension between the "newcomer" children and other children. Second, the concept of border helps to analyze the influence teachers' treatment of cultural differences has on the children in classroom. Teachers' treatment of various differences among children means the formation of and the arrangement of borders. It is emphasized that in the teaching practice are formed not a few borders, which a teacher attempts to arrange. A teacher's treatment of cultural differences in classroom possibly has such an influence on the children that the teacher has not expected, i.e., some children may form a culture border and locate the "newcomer" children beyond the border. In conclusion, the author suggests that for exploring teachers' role in multicultural classroom, case studies need to be conducted with the theoretical framework shown in this article.

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This study approached to the curriculum development of rearing of thinking power in school music education with clue to the developmental model which Robert Marzano (1988) proposed. The development of the thinking power doesn't always follow simple linear model such as a spiral or a step. It seems that thinking was rather shown by a network model, and we must grasp it from multi-dimensions. Thinking power is thought to be developed with strengthening of relation of each dimension. The suggestion which could get from it is as the following as a result examined in such a point of view. 1. The curriculum of rearing of thinking power dealed with on this study has a general idea such as the contents, processes, quality, and thinking skills. These concepts add disciplinary and method-like sides to learning, and they are developed variously by the sides in accordance with the purpose. Furthermore, the purpose is greatly different from the class that importance is attached to a goal for behavioral objectives (like result) until now, and has the point of view which exceeds the problem. At first, a student variously learns how to think about music and how to draw on existing information and skill in this curriculum. By doing that, students generate meaning about the unfamiliar music, and learn about the thinking process to express one's own musical idea through the improvisation and the composition and so on concretely. 2. Rearing of the thinking power in the class doesn't mean to make light of knowledge and skill in the process, but to suggest active acquisition of necessary knowledge and skill and to refine it conversely. Then, thinking power acts like the real intelligence, and becomes the important means to construct the meaning of what was learned. 3. The metacognition which has the nature of control of thinking, is gradually aquired with critical and creative thinking from about the middle grade in elementary school by the accumulation of the everyday training. These metacognition, critical and creative thinking enable students to see objectively their own thinking from various directions. By this, students notice thinking itself, through planning and evaluating learning. In such situation, difficult subjects like "push one's limit of the knowledge and ability", "generating new ways of viewing which exceeds a standard conventions" stand in a line, toward the musically-independent. However, without hesitation, it is necessary to show the place where a teacher actually grapple with them including students first. In other words, such teacher's act is thought to become opportunity to make the space of the creative, different kind of class.

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The purpose of this paper is to clarify the organization of educational knowledge in interdisciplinary curriculum in undergraduate education, by focusing on the hidden structure of curriculum. Today, the number of interdisciplinary curriculums in undergraduate education has been increasing in Japan. We can see the new type of educational knowledge in interdisciplinary curriculum. That is to say, interdisciplinary curriculum is composed of several disciplines. This is different from the traditional style of undergraduate curriculum composed of a single discipline. I think this new type of curriculum may influence the traditional style of educational knowledge in Japan.; I think it very important to clarify the characteristics of interdisciplinary curriculum, especially in the organization of curriculum. However, it is very difficult to analyze interdisciplinary curriculum, because the contents of interdisciplinary curriculum are widely different from each other. In this paper, I focus on the hidden structure of interdisciplinary curriculum, from the viewpoint of "pedagogic codes" by Bernstein, B. He has presented "pedagogic codes" as underlying rules in the process of transmission of knowledge. We can analyze every interdisciplinary curriculum with diversity by focusing on these underlying rules. "Pedagogic codes" have two components. One is "classification", which stands for the degree of boundary between the categories; the other is "framing", which stands for the degree of control on acquisition of knowledge. I applied these concepts to curriculum. Thus I present the notion of "structure of curriculum". I prescribe this notion as realization of pedagogic codes in the curriculum. "Structure of curriculum" means the underlying system in every interdisciplinary curriculum in this case. The structure of curriculum has two components which are the same as the pedagogic codes: (1)The degree of the boundary between the disciplines - from "classification" (2) The degree of control on subject choice - from "framing" These components have the nature of strength or weakness, so these combinations make four types of interdisciplinary curriculum. (1) classification: strong, framing: strong - Academic specialty - oriented curriculum (2) classification: strong, framing: weak - Liberal Arts - oriented curriculum (3) classification: weak, framing: weak - Theme - oriented curriculum (4) classification: weak, framing: strong - Career - oriented curriculum In this paper I've selected the curriculums adapted to each type and analyzed them; from this analysis, I arrive at these conclusions: (1) Interdisciplinary curriculum can deal with issues in contemporary society that traditional disciplines can't. (2) Interdisciplinary curriculum may promote separation of educational organization from research organization at university.

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