It has been the tendency of curriculum studies to assume that curriculum is not a "course" of study but an entire range of "experiences" of learners so that it is symbolized by what Jackson (1992) pointed out as the "confusion" among curriculum researchers who assume that curriculum is course of study. What, however, is the relationship between curriculum as "course" and curriculum as "experiences"? In this paper, we discuss such a "relationship". No matter which opinion we take, it is explicit that curriculum is nothing but what learners learn. Therefore, in this paper, we considered "curriculum" not from the perspective of "curriculum" itself, but from the perspective of "learning". Furthermore, questions such as "what is learning?" lead us to confusion. This confusion occurs because we treat "learning" as a noun. We began our research from the very simple fact that the word "learning" is not originally a noun but the verb "learn", which represents a kind of action, and we consider "the basis (the subject) " of learning as a verb. Aristotle classified human actions (behavior) into "poiēsis" (πоιησιζ) and "praxis" (πραξιζ). Supposing that "learning" is a kind of action, too, it is not unreasonable to classify "learning" into the <poiēsis model> and the <praxis model> and to consider them from this perspective. The basis (subject) of the <poiēsis model> is each individual, and it is well known that such individual-based learning is analyzed by Von Neuman-type cognitive science, which assumes that a brain functions like information processing equipment (a computer). On the other hand, the basis (subject) of the <praxis model> is only in interpersonal relations, and it can't be analyzed by individual-based cognitive science. In fact, these two seemingly mutually contradictive learning models are in the side of "learning" which appears under the different description form. The viewpoint of the <poiēsis model> occurs because learning is described in the description form of ""S + V + O", and the viewpoint of <praxis model> occurs because learning is described in the description form of "S + V". In short, such "duality of learning" occurs from different description forms, and therefore both are related in a manner that can be described as "complementary" (as defined by N. Bohr), so they cannot be separated. The "relation" between the curriculum as "course" and the curriculum as "experiences" also corresponds to such "duality of learning", and because of it, they are in "complementary" relation. Therefore, if we argue only from the side of "experiences" of the curriculum, we cannot help but say that it is a one-sided way of studying curriculum. Now we need to re-interpret curriculum as "course" beyond the dominant negative interpretation of it.

View full abstract

The introduction of " Facherubergreif ender Unterricht" as "integrated learning" in the German secondary education developed rapidly in the process of the curriculum revision of each state in the 1990's. For example, it tries with the curriculum of Hauptschule of State of Baden-Wurttemberg, where it is issued in 1984, in a part of the subjects of social studies, technology and home economics, however it is introduced as a pillar of the curriculum with the revision in 1994 in earnest. It proceeds with the research about "Schlusselproblem (the key problem)" of Wolfgang Klafki and "Sachunterricht" for the elementary education level. The curriculum principle of integrated learning in the high school level that it doesn't have an examination added to fully so far is examined by this research. This research is composed by the following four chapters. Chapter one: summary of general characteristics of German secondary education. Chapter two: various forms of integrated learning in German secondary education. Chapter three: examination of the synthetic learning curriculum of "profile development type" in the case of Max-Brauer-School. And Chapter four: curriculum principle of integrated learning in Max-Brauer-School. Subject oriented learning and individual learning were shown with the first chapter as the principle looked for the German secondary education. The forms of integrated learning in Germany were collected with the second chapter in accordance with Ludwig Duncker and Walter Popp in five types of the next. (1) subject based type, (2) theme development type, (3) curriculum development type, (4) profile development type, and (5) development of new school principle type. The integrated learning curriculum of Max-Brauer-School in Hamburg City was featured in the third chapter as a school case of the profile development type. On the fourth chapter, the principle of the curriculum organization of Max-Brauer-School was explained from the general characteristics at secondary school and the originally developed characteristics of Max-Brauer-School. In conclusion of this paper the principle of integrated learning of Max-Brauer school was in the fusion of the specialty of subjects and the synthesis as a result.

View full abstract

The aim of this paper is to clarify the change of mathematical curriculums on fractions by analyzing arithmetical textbooks published from 1886 to 1904, when the Japanese government carried out the textbook authorization system. Having published his paper on the characteristics of the curriculum from 1886 to 1894, the author gives his focus on change of the curriculums from 1894 to 1904. As in the previous paper, the author analyzes the arithmetical textbooks from the following points of views. (1) Components of the curriculum on fractions and the order of these components; (2) Relationship between the explanations on the properties of integral numbers and fractions; (3) The way in which the properties and order of fractions are taught; (4) The way in which the addition and subtraction of fractions are taught. The years from 1886 to 1904 can be largely divided into two periods. The first period is from 1886 to 1900. The curriculum during the first period is characterized by its "systematic construction" (from 1886 to 1894) and its partial changes (1894 to 1900). In this period, the curriculum which was composed of four components, namely the definition of fractions, their properties, order, and the four arithmetical operations of fractions, was established, and went through partial changes. The second period is from 1900 to 1904. In this period, the curriculum was totally reconstructed and the systematically constructed curriculum was abandoned. This change was given rise to because the arithmetical operations of fractions were thought to be the most important, and, thus, given undue weight in the curriculum. The analysis of the mathematical textbooks shows the followings. (1) In the latter half of the first period, the component on the properties of integral numbers, which existed independently of the components on fractions in the first half of the first period, was deleted. The component on the properties of integral numbers was divided into smaller components and they were allocated in several academic years. These fragmentized smaller components were related with the components on fractions. In the second period, these smaller components were abandoned and the explanations of the properties of integral numbers were included in the components on fractions. (2) As the systematic construction of the curriculum on fractions collapsed,the component on fractions was divided into the smaller components and they were allocated in different academic years. What is essential in fractions was not taught in comprehensive way and the fragmentized explanations were given separately. The order of the components became complicated. (3) The component on "transformation of fractions" -the properties and order of fractions- was deleted. The explanation of properties were given when they were necessary in order to teach the arithmetical operations of fractions. (4) In the latter half of the first period, the component on the arithmetical operation of fractions was divided into two smaller components: the component on the addition and subtraction of fractions of which denominators are same and the component on the addition and subtraction of fractions of which denominators are different. They were allocated in the curriculum in the way that hid their close relationship. In the second period, some parts of the former smaller component were moved to the component on the definition of fractions. And a detailed explanation on the arithmetical operation was given in the component on the operation of fractions with different denominators. In this component, the algorism of the operation is formed by the method of "accumulation."

View full abstract

The purpose of this study is to clarify the several characteristics of the construction of the contents of new vocational choice instruction (Berufswahlunterricht) at lower secondary schools in the Federal Republic of Germany. Although a large number of researches carried out into the theory about new vocational choice instruction, little is known about its actual conditions. We must pay attention to this fact. Therefore, I analyze new vocational choice instruction according to the contents of the textbooks of " Arbeitslehre" that published in 1990s. In the Federal Republic of Germany, lower secondary schools, namely secondary general school (Hauptschule) and Intermediate school (Realschule), mostly offer vocational choice instruction as a part of "Arbeitslehre". After the middle of 1980s many researchers for "Arbeitslehre" insist on the change of the traditional vocational choice instruction that put stress on the information about occupation, because it is not correspond to the situation of vocational training and employment in recent years. The new vocational choice instruction at lower secondary school level aims at giving students not on the information about occupation, but on the perspective of career. According to some textbooks of "Arbeitslehre" that I analyze, the contents of the new vocational choice instruction mainly consist of three parts: (a) information about occupation, for example, the kind of occupation and content of vocational training in the dual system, (b) information about the situation of vocational training and employment that student face in the future, for example, information about unemployment and mobility, (c) information that is necessary for the student to realize his career, for example, information about vocational continual education and the higher stage of education. The actual vocational choice instruction is no longer consisted only of information about occupation. Especially, the fact that a part of contents of actual vocational choice instruction contains the information about the higher stage of education is a characteristic that is not in the traditional vocational choice instruction. One can say that the theory and practice of new vocational choice instruction at lower secondary schools in the Federal Republic of Germany shows that it is necessary to consist of three contents at least that above mentioned in order to give the students the perspective of career.

View full abstract

The purpose of this paper is to clarify the significance and contribution of B. Reimer's studies to integrated arts education research, focusing on his theory of "arts as cognitive" and "comprehensive arts curriculum model." In the 1970's, Reimer formulated the theory and method of integrated arts curriculum and instruction based on the "common elements approach." Though this method became widespread in the United States and Japan, the interdisciplinary curriculum organized around arts concepts received criticism because of its inclination to verbal activities and disregard of children's participation in artistic activities such as singing, painting and dancing. Consequently he changed his original idea of the "common elements approach" into the idea of "arts as cognitive" and systematized the "comprehensive arts curriculum model" in the late 1980's. The idea of "arts as cognitive" is a way of organizing arts curricula from four different viewpoints concerning arts cognition such as; "knowing of," "knowing how," "knowing about," and "knowing why." This idea gives a base for the "comprehensive arts curriculum model." The features of "comprehensive arts curriculum" can be summarized into three points. 1) It offers both individual and interdisciplinary units for integrated arts education. Reimer insists that both units are needed in interdisciplinary arts education for developing aesthetic literacy. 2) It is based on the function of a verbal conceptualization that makes it possible to share the interdisciplinary units by several arts classes using verbalized themes. 3) The "comprehensive arts curriculum model" can be regarded as the interrelated curriculum because it focuses on maintaining each individual discipline's integrity. Reimer separates his idea from two other practices: a "multi-arts curriculum" and a "general arts curriculum." The former type is called a "parallel curriculum" where no correlations are made between several arts subjects. The latter type is called a "complete curriculum" where each discipline's integrity is neglected. Although his method is not regarded applicable to other styles of integrated arts education, and is still receiving criticism from the multicultural viewpoints, it leaves a mark in the field of integrated arts education studies. First of all, his method brings out the need for two kinds of units, individual and interdisciplinary units, in integrated arts education. He makes it clear that neither the "multi-arts curriculum" nor the "general arts curriculum" are appropriate for developing an aesthetic literacy. Second, he succeeds in showing the way to integrate conceptualization and aesthetic perception of arts in formulating curricula. Integrating these two different styles of arts cognition has been a challenge in practicing integrated arts education. However, some practices such as humanities education have failed to achieve this because of heavy emphasis on conceptualization of arts.

View full abstract

Susan M. Drake has labeled three different ways of structuring curriculum after reflecting upon her experience: multidisciplinary which focuses on different disciplines addressing the same theme, interdisciplinary which provides generic themes that can be used across the curriculum, and transdisciplinary which refers to curriculum which goes beyond, or 'transcends' the disciplinary boundaries. In this report, the service-learning program of Granite Falls High School was analyzed using Drake's three concepts of curriculum development. Granite Falls High School was one of only 70 schools in the U.S.A that received the honor of being named as a National Service-Learning Leader School. Research was gathered through personal interviews with Principal Peter D. Finch of Granite Falls High School. According to Mr. Finch, there are five important criteria for designing a successful service-learning curriculum: 1. Service is conducted in and meets the needs of the community. 2. Service is coordinated in and well integrated into the life of the school. 3. Service-learning activities are designed to foster civic responsibility. 4. Service-learning is integrated into and enhances the academic curriculum of the students. 5. The school provides structured time for the student to reflect on the service experience. This report will focus specifically on the standards, interests, and needs found in the Granite Falls High School project. Research such as this will contribute to the designing of service-learning curriculums as well as benefit the production of 'Sougougakushu' in Japan.

View full abstract

Environmental education has just begun in Japan and teachers are facing many dilemmas about its practice. The purpose of this article is to show how environmental education has been organized in accordance with the process of learning by teachers themselves and their redesigning of facilitation. This I will illustrate through my report of attendance at an environmental education class in high school and an interview with the teacher. Environmental education at present time has yet to have its definite educational contents. In Japan it is expected to be taught along with human rights education and development education. In international context, the Thessaloniki Declaration of UNESCO reaffirmed and redefined environmental education as 'education for environment and sustainability.' This means problems such as poverty and exploitation should not be ignored in solving environmental problems. In the future the general view of environmental education would be reaffirmed and redefined again. The terms themselves are in the process of changing. Dealing with the problem to make suitable educational contents, teachers have difficulties to teach in classroom in accordance with social context in Japan and children-centered education now practiced in the country. Environmental education, which is often criticized as 'paying off the debt of this generation by the next generation,' is hard to put into practice because of the difficulty of demonstrating an appropriate action for the environment. On the other hand, turning our attention to the correlation between the social context and the function of schools, we find it clear that schools are instrumental in making known environmental problems. Because schools, by transmitting and justifying our culture, are important in preserving and maintaining it, and our modern culture cannot help making environmental problems. Moreover, in recent years another problem has confronted teachers in this country: how to cope with Goal-Free evaluation now strongly supported by integrated education which is 'oriented to interests of students' with a view 'to appreciate various opinions.' Faced with these dilemmas teachers of environmental education hope to attain both solutions to environmental problems and social justice in order that our society can continue for the future. They also consider environmental education as essential means of living in wholesome natural and human environment not only for this generation but for the future generations. It is likely that owing to these high ideals and dilemmas both limitations and potentials coexist in the school environmental education. In the case of Mr. Kitano's 'class for integrated education,' he makes his original syllabus. Working out facilitation through his own learning process, he tries to overcome the dilemmas created by children-centered education. As for the other dilemmas, however, it is very hard to overcome them without overall social change. Even with difficulties teachers' 'collegiality' can change 'grand narrative.' Teachers go and return between their daily life and educational practice in complex ways. With maintaining connection with his daily life, Mr. Kitano tried to make his contents of environmental education and through his learning process he redefined it and remodeled its practice.

View full abstract

"Class disintegration" in schools has been taken seriously not only as an educational but also as a social problem in Japan since about 1998. I take up two positions from discourses on class disintegration; one of them is what I call "liberalism" in this paper, which is a critical position against the power of schools and especially the power of teachers, called in this paper "liberalism," the other is "authoritarianism" which re-affirm their merits. The purpose of this paper is to point out problems of each position, and to make clear the limitation of the theoretical framework for analyzing schooling based on them. This is neither an attempt for demonstrating that the power of schools and the power of teachers cause class disintegration, nor an attempt of showing a prescription for class disintegration. The focus here is on the problem of theories of schooling. There is a conflict between "liberalism" and "authoritarianism" in discourses on class disintegration. The former is the one that criticizes exhaustively the aspect of teachers' control over children and emphasizes children's freedom. The latter is the one that criticizes overstressing children's freedom and emphasizes the necessity of teachers' control over children for the purpose of keeping a class in order. Although the notions of freedom and control are contradictory in nature, both are indispensable and actually can not be ignored in explaining schooling. Hence both viewpoints on class disintegration can not avoid lapsing into the dualism from which it is so much difficult or almost impossible to escape. In current educational discourses "liberalism" which attacks on "authoritarianism" has been dominant, and it is partially applied to explain class disintegration. Class disintegration, however, also reveals the limitation of "liberalism," while "authoritarianism" has been gaining support from those who are facing terrible situations of class disintegration. This is a characteristic point of class disintegration discourses. Class disintegration makes clear the limitation of theoretical framework for analyzing schooling based on either "liberalism" or "authoritarianism," or both. In this restricted sense, it can be said that class disintegration provides the moment of transforming schooling. It also suggests that we need to create an alternative perspective on schooling. Following the concerns in this paper, the power of teachers should be rewrite in order to be treated as positive and not to fall into "authoritarianism." We should also emphasize that it is a political attempt and remains unresolved.

View full abstract