Il pensiero di Antonio Gramsci e considerate alia stregua di quello politico. Tuttavia in base al contesto della storia moderna italiana, insieme alle voci dei critici del tempo, esso si ripercosse anche sui vari aspetti dell'arte e della cultura. Il testo gramsciano fu falsificato da P. Togliatti all'indomani della Seconda Guerra Mondiale. In virtu di cio, si diffuse la convinzione che il pensiero di Gramsci e la metodologia che potesse condurre l'Italia alia "via della rinascita". Cio nonostante questo orientamento si estese all'arte, generando un termine quale "neorealismo", cioe una catena di rappresentazioni realistiche. Gramsci divenne un "combattente" contro il fascismo e il suo pensiero altero l'estetica della organizzazione "immediata" e "semplicistica" del pathos artistico. Il programma del pensiero gramsciano fu quello di organizzare l'Italia a unica "nazione", sebbene la caratteristica di pensiero sull'arte differiva da quella che i critici della dopoguerra immaginavano e da quella che altre correnti antifasciste avevano proposto nello stesso periodo. I brani sulla critica dell'estetica di B.Croce e sull'architettura razionale nei "Quaderni del carcere" indicano che Gramsci provo a organizzare strategicamente l'arte quale campo culturale, osservando le condizioni politiche e sociali sotto il regime. Dal punto di vista storico, la sua riflessione sul concetto "intellettuale" fu alia base di una visione estetica "mediata" e "complessiva" abbastanza incisiva da riscuotere una vasta eco sull'arte e sulla cultura italiana non solo nel dopoguerra, ma persino prima il conflitto bellico.

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2017年末に行われたチリの総選挙で、ピニェラ元大統領が勝利し、4年ぶりに右派政権が誕生した。他方で、2017年総選挙は、新しい選挙制度の導入と新興の左派勢力「広域戦線」の台頭という点で特徴づけられる。第一に、政治不信を生み出す一因とされた旧来の選挙制度にかわって、今回の選挙より新たな選挙制度が導入された。選出方法、区割り、議員定数の改正などを通じて、政党間競争を高め、政治の代表性を改善することが目指された。第二に、学生運動を起源に持ち、既存の政治や経済格差への不満を背景に近年支持を集めてきた、新しい左派勢力「広域戦線」が、今回の選挙を通じて台頭を見せた。チリでは民主化以来、左右の二大政党連合による固定的な政治の構図が続いてきた。新しい選挙制度の導入と、広域戦線の台頭は、そうした従来の政治を変える可能性をもたらすものである。

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The purpose of this study is to harness the viewpoint of Takehiko Daikoku's virtual society theory, which clarifies the concepts of reality and virtuality in the modern media paradigm, to consider the position of reality in media sports.

According to the perspective of virtual society theory, contemporary reality is organized in the following way. Reality consists of reality in the physical arena and actuality in the social arena. The former is composed of presence, and the latter is composed of experiential reality and informational reality. Of these, the former, experiential reality, is backed up by verifiability, whereas the latter, informational reality, is backed up by the reliability of mass media and Technology. Concerning communication, in the sense that society is comprised of communication, communication possesses reality. However, different tones of reality exist for different kinds of communication.

For example, E-sports lack the reality of athletes, but communication occurring through this has realism in the sense that it has actuality. However, this has a tone that is different from an actual soccer match. Additionally, media sports like marathons in which the overall situation can only be viewed in its totality through television broadcasting inverts the relationship of original = real and copy = virtual, and VAR (Video Assistant Referee) and the Hawk-Eye System create a society in which reality is measured based on informational reality instead of experiential reality. As seen in these examples, reality is not in the process of disappearing in media sports, but instead in the process of changing.

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デモクラシーが「公衆」を形成する。けれども、デモクラシーは「公衆」をどの程度にまで必要とするといえるだろうか。本論文では、こうした「デモクラシー」と「公衆」をめぐる問題をリベラル・ジャーナリズムの時代のなかでのジョン・デューイに光を当てながら検討し、デモクラシーが「公衆」を形成するということのもつ意味を考察する。

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  Migration research in German-speaking folklore studies / cultural anthropology began after World War II with the exploration of the situation of German expellees and refugees, whereby the focus was on traditional topics such as narratives, songs, rituals, costumes and other material things. However, with the study “New settlements” by Bausinger, Braun and Schwedt in 1959, a new orientation towards cultural and social change of the present became apparent. This initiated a discussion on categories of belonging, which was now one of the core topics of the subject: The dissolution and flexibilisation of allegedly rigid structures through mobility － the mobility of people, goods, ideas, finance and media － and the flexibilisation of related concepts such as “society”, “culture” and “identity.”

   

  But at first these new perspectives were still little recognized. From the exploration of the contact of Germans abroad with other cultures developed the application-oriented intercultural communication, which tried to determine central values and norms, concepts and worldviews, and standards and patterns of a certain ethnic or national group and to use them for the intercultural dialogue.

   

  Migration research was given a major boost with the immigration of foreign workers into German-speaking countries, which had been growing rapidly since the 1960s. Arnold Niederer, Rudolf Braun and Ina-Maria Greverus became pioneers of research on cultural contact and conflict. Many of the publications of this period focused on the ethnically defined origins of the migrants and addressed the difficulties of adaptation.

   

  From the 1980s onward, globally discussed theories followed, first the idea of a multicultural society, then approaches that were oriented towards the transnational connections of individuals and groups. Against this background, cultural anthropology has dealt more and more with concepts that emphasize the process, the transition, the gradual, the intertwining.

   

  Recently, research has been developing in various directions: border studies are critically observing the “governmentalization” of migration policy which seeks to control and prevent immigration movements. In the opposite direction, emigration from the rich German-speaking countries has become an important topic. In addition, there are many links with other fields of research, such as city, media, work and gender.

   

  Migration is no longer understood as an exceptional situation of a normally sedentary society, but as a normal case in a mobile and transnational world. Its research concerns all areas of society. There is a visible shift towards the opportunities and potential of migration, and to a perspective that no longer distinguishes between migrant and sedentary people but seeks an overall view of a society determined by multiple forms of mobility.

   

  Migration research contributes significantly to rethinking social and cultural theories and to emphasizing the agency of those affected as well as the processuality of cultural settings.

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The aim of this paper is to clarify the characteristics and the contributions of Muhammad Balk al-Sadr's political thought, considering his activities in the Da'wa Party and contextualizing his thought in the political history of Iraq. Research on al-Sadr is divided into two streams; analysis of his economic and philosophical thoughts and description of his political activities. Hence, this paper combines these two analyses in order to show dynamism of his thought within the framework of political change in Iraq. Following his initial vision of the realization of an Islamic state with the concept of the Islamic principle of Shura, al-Sadr proposed to create the Da'wa Party in a relatively democratic period in modern Iraq, legitimatizing it from the Islamic jurisprudence point of view. When the party was firmly established and was gaining more popular supports within Iraq, the Ba'thist regime with its increasing authoritarianism stood as a strong obstacle. Al-Sadr had to develop a revolutionary theory in his course to realize Islamic state in Iraq. The characteristics of al-Sadr's political thought are; (1) his development in adaptation of Islamic jurisprudence on political change in Iraq, (2) legitimatization of the creation of Islamic state in the modern state, (3) proposition of concrete ideas about the institutions of a sustainable Islamic state.

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