The current study conducted semi-structured interviews with 10 Japanese and 10 South Korean middle-aged married women to ascertain how different cultural construals of the self and views on the modern family affect incidents of martial conflict. This study also ascertained the intent behind the conflict resolution strategies those women adopted. Results revealed that conflicts arose in different contexts. In Japan, conflict arose around role-sharing as part of cohabitation and following rules. In South Korea, conflicts arose around a need for marital cohesiveness achieved through shared meaning or values. Differences in the intent behind conflict resolution strategies (e.g. “asserting” “avoiding,” “compromising,” and “yielding” ) that were adopted were also evident. Japanese wives who adopted either a strategy with a high level of other-orientation or a high level of self-concern adopted an “asserting” strategy that ascribed their negative feelings to their spouse or a “yielding” strategy that ascribed their negative feelings to themselves in order to maintain their marital relationships. Some Japanese wives adopted a “compromising” strategy. When their opinions differed with those of their spouses, Japanese wives withdrew in order to get on their spouse's good side and increase the likelihood that their opinion would be listened to. In contrast, South Korean wives perceived their own feelings first and asserted themselves when interacting with their spouses.

　　South Korean wives adopted a “yielding” strategy when third parties were involved, i.e. wives were cognizant of children's views of their father. These findings indicated that one's role in the family and one's personal views on the family affected the strategies that Japanese wives adopted during marital conflicts while one's emotions and Confucian views of the family stressing cohesiveness affected the strategies that South Korean wives adopted during marital conflicts. Results also suggested that Japanese and South Korean wives adopted a certain strategy during conflicts. Japanese wives adopted a “compromising” strategy while South Korean wives adopted a “yielding” strategy in light of their children.

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日本人男性と外国人女性による国際結婚に関する考察は多くが農村部に嫁いだ外国に焦点を絞って行われており，都市部在住の外国の生活現実に関する検討が行われていない。また，外国の中で中国人女性の占める割合が最も多く，更に，中国全体の中で，2017 年の21 大都市における中国の占める割合が42％になっているにもかかわらず，都市部に在住する中国人女性に視点を絞った研究は少ない。本研究は，先行研究で指摘された農村部の国際結婚に関する⚗つの問題点に基づき，都市部の状況を考察した上で，都市部と農村部の違いを明らかにする。その結果，以下のような仮説的な知見を得た。都市部では，言葉の問題は夫婦間コミュニケーションに農村部ほど深刻な問題になっていない。一方，都市部では，ストレスの要因が複雑化してきている。日本人との人間関係が形成し難しいこと，日本語教室，近隣，職場など社会生活の様々な面で，偏見・差別を感じること，文化的差異により夫婦関係に葛藤を感じること，言葉の制限で良い職に就けないことなどがストレスに繋がっている。以上のようなストレスの解消手段としては，都市部では，同国人ネットワークが有効に機能している。しかし，同国人ネットワークが有効に機能することは日本社会との交流が希薄になるという逆効果にもつながる。その結果，日本文化に溶け込めないまま，夫婦間における文化的差異は一向に縮まらない。そのため，行政の面で，結婚移住女性にとって利用しやすい支援活動の在り方を考察する必要がある。

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This paper is a report of a survey conducted in their own native languages on the consciousness and reality of foreign 'brides' from Asia in Japanese rural areas. The subjects of this survey were 154 foreign 'brides' from China/Taiwan, Korea and Philippines who are married to Japanese men and registered residents of Mogami district, Yamagata Prefecture (eight cities and villages).
This survey revealed the following : (1) The gap between the ideal and reality in various aspects of life in Japan is great. (2) A large proportion of them decided to marry after being persuaded by sweet talking “international marriage” agents. (3) large problems exist in communication in Japanese. (4) There are large differences between tradition, culture and value systems of their native countries and Japan. (5) The common family structure was a lineal extended family in which the brides live with their husbands' parents. (6) The ratio of the families in which finances are controlled by the mother-in-law is high, hence the brides feel that they are deprived of their role as wives and mothers. (7) In many cases, wives are forced to assimilate as Japanese within their families. (8) Marriages are perceived as marriages of convenience for the purpose of maintenance and continuation of the 'ie' or the family lineage. (9) they strongly feel that discrimination and prejudice against non Japanese Asians still persist in local Japanese communities. (10) The legal, institutional and spiritual environment is still not adequate for accepting foreign 'brides'.

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As a coordinator of the first session on kokusai kekkon (literally translated as “international marriage”), I will put forward here some of the fundamental issues concerning families on the “boundaries”. Comparing studies on kokusai kekkon with those on intermarriage in western countries, this paper reviews the former studies in the following order.
·What constitutes endogamy and exogamy for kokusai kekkon.
·A brief history of “nationality”, which is the main boundary of kokusai kekkon.Considering the relationship between kokusai kekkon and nationality, “cross-national marriage” can be seen as the most appropriate translation for kokusai kekkon.However, there are many other “boundaries” which form sub-categories of “cross-national marriage” such as “inter-racial marriage” and “intercultural marriage”. The use of these terms is, for the most part, dependent upon the perspective of the individual researher.
·Some problems concerning both intermarriage and sub-categories of kokusai kekkonstudies overlap. For example, many of these studies focus on “foreign wives” only.
This paper clarifies some issues relating to the complex topic of kokusai kekkon, especially from the aspect of “boundaries”. Nevertheless, it is apparent that some research structures of ‘family’ resulting from intermarriage and intramarriage are quite similar. It thus becomes obvious that full-fledged research through cooperation among researchers is sorely needed. Moreover, not only do we need structural-functional research but also research which takes an historical approach in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of kokusai kekkon.

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「国際結婚」研究においては, 受け入れ社会の視点から来日後を中心に, 「アジアの花嫁」を扱う傾向がある。本稿は, 農村部に住む「中国人花嫁」を対象とした事例研究を通して, 送り出し社会に注目して結婚移民のプロセスを分析し, 「国際結婚」のプッシュ要因を検証した。その結果, 中国が, 出身地である特定地域と日本との間にある経済的格差による経済的要因, ジェンダー的要因, 文化的要因などのプッシュ要因によって, 送り出し社会において多重に周辺化されていたことを見いだした。とくに, ジェンダー的要因として, 中国的家父長制的ジェンダー要因および新国際分業におけるネオ家父長制的ジェンダー要因を可視化した。考察を通して, 従来の抽象的な「農村の花嫁」像を問い直し, 農村部の「国際結婚」家族が形成される過程をダイナミックにとらえた。

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  The purpose of this paper is to describe images of Chinese women with Japanese spouses in Japanese magazine articles during the 1990s and 2000s.

  In magazine articles from the 1990s, when international marriages between Chinese women and Japanese men were increasing, Chinese women were portrayed as “brides of the farmhouse” who could be purchased like products by Japanese men with economic power. The increase of international marriages between Chinese women and Japanese men has the background of a “shortage of brides” in rural Japan. They were regarded as alternatives to Japanese women who could support the patriarchal family system and fulfill the gender roles of “wife” and “mother.” However, in the 2000s, as Japan’s immigration control policies became stricter, Chinese women, who were supposed to become spouses of Japanese men, deviated from the gender norms and came to be seen as criminals that were a huge threat to “Japanese people” and “Japanese society,” as reported in the magazine articles.

  In this way, the images of Chinese women with Japanese spouses in magazine articles have primally changed from “good wives” who were subordinate to Japanese men sexually and performed their gender roles well, into that of criminals. This shift can be linked to the context where the Japanese government strengthened its control over illegal employment, “illegal residents,” and fake marriage cases involving foreigners in Japan.

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　本稿以中国东北地区H 县为例，考察跨国婚姻移民对移出地的影响。据笔者调查，中国东北地区存在一定数量的「异民族跨国中介婚姻」，本稿将此称之「东北模式」的「异民族跨国中介婚姻」。本稿主要探讨两个问题(1)「东北模式」的「异民族跨国中介婚姻」的形成机制，(2)「异民族跨国中介婚姻」家庭的运营实况。
　通过调查发现，「东北模式」的「异民族跨国中介婚姻」的形成机制有以下几点。(1)东北地区女性海外移动的常态化，不仅给当地人口结构带来冲击，同时也加剧了当地人对中国女性的不信任。这为当地婚姻市场接收外国妻子创造了空间。(2)女性的大量外移带动了当地择偶标准的变化。过去在择偶标准上加附于女性的性别要素，在男多女少的婚姻市场上方向调转，在男性身上凸显出来。即不仅经济地位薄弱的男性，样貌、年龄等在性别规范中处于劣势的男性也容易被排挤出国内的结婚市场，被迫迈入跨国婚姻的行列。(3)东北地区独特的移民文化为当地接受外国妻子提供了一个宽松的社会环境。
　由于是婚姻中介介绍的婚姻而且自身家庭条件欠佳，在中国父母的潜意识里始终担心越南媳妇会随时离家出走。所以在日常生活中，他们通过灵活处理家庭关系以及支持越南媳妇对母国的援助等方式来挽留住她们。

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