The purpose of this paper is to clarify the origin and structure of problem-posing ESL (English as a Second Language) in the U.S.A.. I focus on this because of my recognition of the need for critical literacy in the learning of Japanese as a second language. For that purpose I review relevant studies of language acquisition, papers on refugees and immigrants and treatises of proponents of problem-posing ESL who criticize communicative and survival ESL.
First, I focus on the historical, social and economic background of adult ESL. I examine the origins of adult ESL under the influence of language rights in connection with the civil rights movement, the harmful influence on national finances of the poverty of refugees and immigrants, ESL training supported by labor unions since 1900 and the history of studies of second language acquisition.
Second, I consider the beginning of the problem-posing approach which Nina Wallerstein practiced in a Spanish-speaking neighborhood of San Jose, CA. with the teaching materials and teachers' guidebook on problem-posing ESL.
Third, I examine the analysis of survival ESL in which Auerbach and Burgess clarify the hidden curriculum of new genre in ESL (1980's). They criticized these texts as not reflecting the immigrants' reality. For example, their anxieties, cultural backgrounds and difficult situations in the new country Furthermore, the texts placed students in subservient social roles and reinforced social hierarchies.
Finally, I clarify the concept and characteristics of problem-posing ESL. The practice of Wallerstein was based upon Brazilian educator Paulo Freire's problem-posing approach. The goal of the problem-posing approach is critical thinking and action starting from perceiving the social, historical and cultural causes of the problems in one's life. Critical thinking goes on beyond perception toward the actions and decisions refugees and immigrants can make to gain control over their lives. A problem-posing methodology has three steps: listening: investigating the issues of the community, dialogue: cordifying issues into discussion code for critical thinking, action: strategizing the changes students envisage.
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