本研究では、企業に籍を置き雇用形態が異なるアスリートのキャリア・トランジションのプロセスにおける力動関係を分析し、キャリア支援の在り方を探ることを目的とした。対象者は、企業に所属しバトミントン競技のアスリートであった選手３名。内訳は企業の業務と競技を続け昨年度引退した

２名とオリンピック出場経験のあるスポーツ競技のみに専念する契約社員雇用の選手１名。キャリア・トランジションのプロセスを検討するために、時間的経過に従い体験した競技・職業生活に関するエピソード、イベント及びそれらに随伴した内的体験、自身の競技・職業生活への思い、競技引退後の見通しや実際の進路などについて、半構造化面接法による個別インタビュー調査を実施した。得られたエピソード、イベント及び内的体験をKJ法でまとめ役割退出理論（Ebaugh，1988）の枠組みからキャリア・トランジションの内界と外界の力動関係を明らかにした。このことから雇用形態の違いから生まれるキャリア・トランジションを示すことができ、それぞれのキャリア・トランジションを検討した結果、現役時から引退後のことも考える「デュアルキャリア」支援の重要性と必要性が指摘できる。

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　1990年代以降とくに顕著となった企業スポーツの危機は、従業員の一体感や凝集性を高めるための福利厚生施策の一環として誕生したという成立の経緯そのものにあり、その後企業の広告・宣伝の役割も付加されたり、あるいはCSR（企業の社会的責任）の観点から位置づけ直されたりするようになったとはいえ、それ自体、費用対効果の点から企業業績に左右される不安定性を内包するものであった。この企業スポーツの衰退は、それを有力な人的供給源とするプロスポーツの弱体化を招き、地域社会の疲弊を加速しかねない重大な問題である。それゆえに企業スポーツを個別の経営から自立させるために、地域を主体としたクラブチームへの移行やプロリーグへの発展が追求されてきたのであり、サッカーのＪリーグと野球の独立リーグの誕生はその成果であった。しかし、それらがビジネスモデルとするべき日本のプロ野球は、最近一部に変化の動きはあるものの、長期にわたって「戦力の均衡」に基づく試合のダイナミズムを創出できなかったばかりか、企業経営としての自立性の欠如や権威主義的労使関係など多くの問題をかかえたままであった。
　しかもわが国にあってプロスポーツ選手の法的地位は、他の先進諸国に比べ不安定であり、それが選手たちの職業としての安定性に深い影を落としている。むろんプロ野球選手の一部に特徴的な高額な年俸は、その高い身体能力とスキルに対する報酬ではあるが、その現役期間の短さを考慮すれば彼らにあっても選手生活の後の社会生活が問題であり、当然にもセカンドキャリアが重要となる。とりわけプロスポーツ選手に固有の専門スキルは、所属球団やクラブに限定されないいわば職業特殊的なものであり、一般企業に適用可能なスキルではないゆえにその緊要性は一層高い。この意味においてＪリーグが先鞭をつけた選手に対するセカンドキャリア支援の試みは、注目に値する。 その上で看過してはならないことは、瞬時の決断力や高度な集中力あるいは克己心や耐久力、旺盛な行動力など、厳しい戦いの世界で培われたスポーツ選手のいわば人間力は、第二の職業世界においても確かな優位性をもつということである。今日、プロスポーツは、市場経済システムの猛威の果てに疲弊の度が一層深まっている地域社会の、コミュニティとしての再生を担う役割を期待されている。

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    This paper presents a comparative institutional analysis of the endogenous and self-enforcing system of “Japanese company sports” and examines the characteristics of the design and problems of its transitions. The remarkable feature of the institutional design of Japanese company sports in the sports domain is the “institutional complementarity” with Japanese-style employment practices in the company domain, mediated by the company athletes who play games simultaneously as athletes in sport domain and as employees in the company domain. Such institutional interdependencies between two different domains also provide managerial resources to the National Sports Federation or top-league organization and greatly affect its institutional design. Thus, we can understand the company sports as an endogenous and self-enforcing equilibrium outcome of the game in both domains.
    Because of this institutional complementarity, Japanese company sports can’ t be easily changed, according to what is known in Comparative Institutional Analysis as the “inertia” . For example, it is difficult to dismiss an employee who is a company athlete under the Japanese-style employment practice. However, in recent years, because of the slow economic growth and decreasing corporate profits, combined with the decreasing merits of Japanese-style employment practices, the benefit of company sports in the context of labor management has decreased significantly. By considering these factors, a transition to an alternative system of professional or community sport is planned. However, one issue involved with this transition is that although company sports bring great benefits, the transition involves risk for the athletes, as they must rebuild their careers in some way. The second issue is that for company sports, which are at the center of company costs, independent management as well as intellectual and personal management resources are not combined. The third issue is the adjustment of complementarity with the existing systems during transition.

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Why do athletes choose to become second-career teachers? This qualitative research explores the factors influencing elite athletes’ choice of becoming a teacher after retirement. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ex-professional athlete teachers (7 baseball players and 7 football players) to discuss the reasons for career choice and factors influencing their decision. The data, which were recorded, transcribed and analyzed through the application of principles from Grounded Theory, resulted in 20 concepts in 9 categories. Examples of categories include achievement of a stable livelihood, desire to remain involved in their sports, and influence of significant others. Ex-professional baseball players samples “needed” to become teachers in post-retirement to lead high school club activities due to the former student baseball eligibility restoration system. Meanwhile, former J. League players tended to become teachers to secure a stable future for themselves.

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    This study uses property rights theory to comparatively analyze the institutional design of the spectator sports business by examining both a company basketball club and a professional basketball club of Japan’ s top basketball league, whose hometowns were adjacent to each other. Then we try to clarify the possibilities and problems of the institutional transition from a company club to a professional club. To evaluate the “property” (attributes of goods and services) in the spectator sports businesses, we administered a questionnaire survey to spectators attending home games of each club, in which we asked fans if their motivation consisted of “team attachment,” “player attachment,” “sports attachment,” and/or “community pride.” Employees and stakeholders of both clubs were interviewed to identify the assignment of property rights to utilize the value corresponding to the fans’ motivation.
    Our results showed that company club fans showed significantly higher “player attachment,” while professional club fans showed significantly higher “community pride.” Moreover, despite the fans’ higher player attachment, the company clubs failed to efficiently utilize “player value” (an attribute of spectator sports that motivated fans via player attachment) because the required property rights actually belong to the parent company, which employs players as full-time employees of the main business, rather than as players. However, the economic advantage that company athletes gained from simultaneously performing a double role (top athlete and full-time employee) provided the company clubs more opportunities to recruit players than the professional clubs, whose budgets for player salaries were limited. In contrast, professional clubs had control over most of the property rights required to utilize the element “value for community resource,” (an attribute of spectator sports that motivated fans via community pride) although these rights were dispersed to stakeholders who had little incentive to engage in the community activities from a medium- and long-term perspective in the company clubs. More fans attended home games of the professional clubs than company clubs, and the utilization of the value for community resources was one factor behind this difference. Therefore, assigning property rights of the value for community resources and also the lack of human resources of business management in company club can be considered the key aspects of institutional design required by spectator sports businesses and the answer to the problem of successful institutional transition from a company club to a professional club.

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   The designation of undrafted player started its history in the Nippon Professional Baseball (“NPB”) when the NPB introduced its entry draft for the Japanese amateur players in 1965. The NPB clubs used undrafted players to gain competitive edges while the draft system was to bring competitive balance on the field. Many top amateur players who were supposed to remain amateur signed with the NPB teams as undrafted players, to many people’ s surprise. The NPB clubs often put undrafted players outside of the roster as practice players.
   1990 was the year when historical changes were made to the entry draft system in the NPB. The NPB expanded the number of draft picks and the roster while it banned the teams from signing amateur players as free agents. Carrying practice players was outlawed at the same time.
   The demand for another development system had been growing among NPB clubs with the number of industrial league teams diminishing and players losing opportunities to play. That is how the developmental player system was born in 2005. 2005 was also the year the first independent league in Japan was born, in Shikoku Island. As of 2018, 17 teams, in three leagues, are active. There has been a steady increase in the number of independent league players who were picked in the developmental draft.
   As the birth of the developmental player system and the independent league happened to be in the same year, both took their roots in the diminishing of the number of industrial league teams and in the players’ losing opportunities to play.
   Another significance of this study lies in the fact that a list of all Japanese players who signed with the NPB teams since the first draft is databased in a spreadsheet.

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    The purpose of this study were to study practical wisdom of coaching, and reconsider “coaching” from soccer coaches’ life-story. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with two coaches (former J-league soccer players) who are directing top-level youth soccer team in Japan. The result showed that coaches are learning from their own coaching experiences. Therefore, it seems important that coaches should work on practices that include “organic improvement” based on “reflective thinking”. In conclusion, “coaching” was reconsidered as “the workings of growth for coaches through their coaching practices” and this appears to be a different view from “conventional coaching”.

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