The family income and expenditure survey uses two types of classifying methods to analyze living expenditures-commodity classification (classification according to the commodities purchased irrespective of use) and usage classification (classification according to the purpose of purchase: household consumption or use as ). As such, we can obtain the expenditure on by calculating the difference between the relevant data items under commodity classification and under usage classification.
The expenditure on fruits as was confirmed by a time series - the share of the expenditure on fruits as in the total fruit expenditure rose from 9% in 1970 to 17% in 2008. This shows that while household consumption of fruits and (by extension) total fruit purchases by households have been decreasing over the long term, household expenditure on fruits as has remained largely constant. Consequently, the share of the expenditure on fruits as has increased.
Following this, the monthly expenditure on fruits as based on the city was presented. There are based on the city was presented. There are eight cities wherein during some months,the share of the expenditure on fruits as exceeded 50%. Further, the crop yields of the fruits used as are high in these regions.

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It has been found that consumers living in fruit production areas purchase plenty of the fruits for . The purpose of this paper is to clarify the consumers' behavior in apple production areas. The results of the questionnaire survey that was conducted in Morioka City are as follows.
Nearly 80 percent of the respondents practice the custom of year-end . The senior respondents tended to answer that they presented every year. They stated that when giving , they considered the preferences of their receivers. In addition, they acknowledged as wanting to be certain of the quality of the they gave and that they wanted to present related to the region that they lived in.
Among the respondents, 70 percent claimed to have given apples as , and many senior respondents claimed that they frequently used them for gift items. Further, the survey results show that 40 percent of the respondents who had given apples as had directly purchased them from farm producers. Therefore, it is important that farm producers get ready for direct marketing. The survey found that 22 percent of the respondents did not want to give apples as in the future. This was because they believed that the quantity would be too much for a small family to consume. With the rise in the number of small families, this problem will need to be addressed.

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In 2003, the tax system for clearing of the

tax paid to the in the past when a child inherits his parent’s property introduced. Before introducing this system, the tax was very heavy, comparing the inheritance tax. However, the tax has become relative low by applying this system. In this paper, we examine the theoretical price of and bequests, basing the tax system in Japan to and bequests, such as tax rate, one’s basic deduction, clearing of the tax paid to , progressive taxation and so on, and we analyze the optimal allocation between and bequests by parents in which the marginal price of is equal to that of bequests.

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The authors have investigated the influence of interaction with product information on selection results in product purchase. In the previous study, the authors investigated cases the participants selected watches themselves to wear, however in this study we conduct similar investigation on decision making when purchasing

. As a result of comparing with the previous study, even when purchasing , it was found that the selection result varies depending on the interaction of product information. Next, we investigated on gender differences. As a result, we found that the selection result was more likely to change for females than males by interaction with product information. Finally, we compared the price variance of selected products with the previous study. As a result, males showed that prices are set to a certain extent when purchasing their own, whereas there are variations in the budget for . On the other hand, females do not change the budget for , however in the case of their own, the price range tends to vary.

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Additive conjoint measurement (ACM) model was applied to questionnaire data to study subjective evaluation of . In the questionnaire the stimuli consisted of nine hypothetical , each described as a two component profile-price and gift article. ACM was performed to preference data from 94 subjects, each ranked the nine . First the statistical variation of judgements required a homogeneity test on subjects' rank ordering, from which followed clustering the entire subjects into several homogeneous groups.Secondly the additivity assumption of the model was tested for each subject and group, according to axiomatic rules-double cancellation and independence.Third ACM algorithm was applied to group averaged data to examine the statistical fit of the model and also to yield utility scales. It was shown that there exist subject groups with different utility scales to evaluate . The utility scale in presenting was found to be different from the scale in receiving .

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The economic transactions in rural China are self-enforceable without any legal enforcement because they are embedded in the informal social institutions based on gift giving guanxi ties. These ties are of two types—expressive guanxi ties based on reciprocal gift exchange and instrumental guanxi ties based on unidirectional gift giving. In this paper, we first prove theoretically that gift giving is a result of rational conduct that minimizes expenditure. Thereafter, a few hypotheses are proposed and empirically tested through categorical regression and analysis of micro level data. We find that expressive guanxi ties are not related to income level but instrumental guanxi ties are related to income level. In other word, we verify the rationality of informal institutions in rural China. It is implied that under a situation whrein the cost of transition from informal to formal social institutions for economic transaction is prohibitive, the present informal human governance based on gift giving will continue to be employed by Chinese villagers, because it is an intrinsically rational system.

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This article argues the gift as an ineluctable agent of cultural diffusion. The power that the gift exercises can be robust and pervasive; or it can be elusive and transient. Our research question is, what is the role of aesthetics and ideology employed by the giver or its intermediaries, including marketers, for the consequent adaptation of cultural diffusion? We examine four cases in Japan's history when Japan had cultural exchanges with its Others: 1)

from China (Tang dynasty) in the tribute system (630-864), 2) of European missionaries to Japan and souvenirs of Europe acquired by Japanese emissaries to Europe (1549 to 1590), 3) souvenirs of Japan acquired by Europeans who visited Japan from the late Edo to Meiji eras (1853 to 1890); and 4) seasonal between Japanese consumers (primarily for o-chugen and o-seibo) through which foreign products were diffused. We conclude that it is the thought (ideology) that counts in cultural diffusion and adaptation. Marketing, in contrast, as the instigator of commercialized gift rituals, fueled the importation of foreign gift rituals as well as foreign goods by promoting new traditions such as Christmas and Valentine's Day giving. We reflect on cultural contagion from past marketing efforts so that we may find ways to use marketing more positively, such as in nourishing more prosocial giving, for a better sustainable future. We conclude with contributions of the present study to marketing history.

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This paper examines how the Japanese government could improve working relationships between researchers in universities and in private companies to provide a more stimulating environment for economic growth in Japan.After discussing Japanese university regulations which preclude cooperation between universities and private companies, I will document how Stanford University has contributed to the rapid growth of Silicon Valley, using examples Stanford University, such as consultant activities, sponsored projects, and . Finally, I will have some recommendations about cooperation between universities and private companies based on the above discussions. My recommendations are that 1) Japanese companies should imitate U.S. companies that give to universities without expectation of any direct return, 2) the Japanese government should encourage professors to do consulting work furthermore though administrative rules have already been amended to allow off-duty consulting from April 1997, 3) provide tax exemptions for from individuals to universities, and 4) try various methods to encourage cooperation between universities and private companies.

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Background: Anti-tobacco television advertisement campaigns may convey messages on smoking-related health consequences and create norms against giving cigarettes.
Methods: Altogether, 156 and 112 slots of a television advertisement “Giving cigarettes is giving harm” were aired on Suzhou and Yizheng, respectively, over one month in 2010. Participants were recruited from 15 locations in Suzhou and 8 locations in Yizheng using a street intercept method. Overall 2306 residents aged 18–45 years completed questionnaires, including 1142 before the campaign and 1164 after, with respective response rates of 79.1% and 79.7%. Chi square tests were used to compare the difference between categorical variables.
Results: After the campaign, 36.0% of subjects recalled that they had seen the advertisement. Residents of Suzhou had a higher recall rate than those of Yizheng (47.6% vs. 20.6%, P < 0.001). The rate of not giving cigarettes dropped from 32.1% before the campaign to 28.5% after (P = 0.05). In the post-campaign evaluation, participants who reported seeing the advertisement were more likely not to give cigarettes in the future than those who reported not seeing the advertisement (38.7% vs. 27.5%, P < 0.001).
Conclusions: Our study showed that an anti-tobacco television advertisements helped change societal norms and improve health behavior. Continuous and adequate funding of anti-tobacco media campaigns targeted at different levels of the general population is needed, in conjunction with a comprehensive tobacco control effort.

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医師と製薬会社との関係はしばしば社会問題となってきた．近年，医学教育においてプロフェッショナリズムに関する教育の重要性が認識されつつあり，製薬会社との適切な関係を保つことの重要性が指摘されている．本研究は，現在，医師が製薬会社からの利益供与に対してどのように行動しているかを把握することを目的とした．
1) 医師を対象とした民間の調査会社に登録している医師1200人を無作為に抽出し，インターネットを用いてアンケート調査を実施した．
2) ボールペン，メモ帳はほとんどの医師が受け取っており，診療ガイドライン，弁当，懇親会出席，タクシーチケットは多くの医師が受け取っていた．
3) 卒後年数が経過した医師・診療所の医師の方が提供を受けやすい傾向があり，研究会出席の費用負担は公立病院・大学病院勤務医師が利益供与を受けていた．
4）多くの医師が製薬会社から利益供与を受けており，卒後年数・勤務先によりその頻度が異なっていた．
5）医師と製薬会社との適切な関係についての教育方法を議論する上で，本研究結果は有用な基礎資料となると思われる．

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The Gift by Marcel Mauss showed that gift giving has multiple factors that seem to contradict each other. Freedom and obligation are constantly described as being two sides of the same coin in the book. This study focuses on the ambiguity and polysemy of hospitality and

that Mauss suggested. The Daasanach, who live in the border area of Ethiopia and Kenya, fight with their neighboring groups. Nevertheless, many Daasanach have friends who belong to these groups. When a violent conflict ends, members of the two groups voluntarily visit each other’s lands, interact peacefully, and form friendships. The friendships among them are neither formed as a result of acts of social obligation nor are relationships formed as a means for an individual to seek one’s own profit. They are relationships that are formed when two parties with different daily lives happen to encounter one another, with one party providing hospitality and/or to another who cannot do anything but “wait.” In this paper, I will analyze the emerging process of friendship and emphasize the coincidental aspect of hospitality and gift giving.

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We hosted a public forum on the theme of geoparks in disaster-stricken areas at the UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction. It was found that the participants shared a common understanding that the important tasks of a geopark are to provide content based on the advantages of viewing the two aspects of nature – namely, disasters and

– from a common perspective, and to create a network supporting the expert knowledge needed for this content and the skills to convey such knowledge.

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