This article examined the relationship between the Grain

System and spatial structure of canal-side space along a part of the Grand Canal called Caohe (the Canal for Grain ) during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The Grain System refers to the comprehensive and systematic structure established by the government to support canal transportation, which includes not only the canal, but also water conservancy facilities, post stations, granaries, management buildings, officials and laborers dedicated to managing and overseeing the canal transportation. Then the article analyzed historical materials and ancient maps to examine spatial structure of the canal-side space of Caohe.

抄録全体を表示

The purpose of this paper is to distinguish between gú-na and gú-na ma-da. Gú-na was brought by rulers of vassal states from the far distant regions as proof of their obedience to the suzerainty of the Ur III dynasty.
On the other hand, gú-na ma-da was a from the stationary troops on the east bank of the Tigris, where there was a strategic point against invading hostile tribes. The gú-na ma-da was introduced as a new in the middle of the reign of Shu-Sin in order to strengthen military and civil governorship of the troops and to secure the political and military stability in the district.

抄録全体を表示

The circulation of material goods in ancient Japanese society has been frequently studied from the viewpoint of paid vertically from local society to the central government. However, barter as a form of horizontal material circulation must also have existed. In fact, in the background of the cho-yo 調庸 system of , there is the existence of trade activities forming the basis of a circulation economy. In the present paper the author focuses upon the characteristic features of the institution of yo 庸 within the ritsuryo taxation system in an attempt to identify goods used as money (in the sense of payment and a medium of exchange), which played an important role in the circulation of goods during the ancient period. Basically, yo consisted of four goods: cloth, rice, wata 綿 (stuffing made from boiling silk worms), and salt. The provinces that submitted each good seem to have been groups together regionally. Furthermore, if yo indeed was intended to be the daily necessities for supporting corvee labor performed in the capital, then these goods must havd functioned on the local leve1 as media of exchange. Turning to the yo goods themselves, first, cloth, which was initially paid as jofu 常布, has already been identified as a unit of cloth functioning widely in pre-Taika times as a medium of exchange. Therefore, there is no doubt that cloth for yo functioned a money. Next, regarding rice , we know that rice was widely used throughout ancient society as a form of payment. As to wata stuffing, it was used in Kyushu as payment for foreign trade goods and at Dazai-fu as part of the stipends paid the bureaucrats there, showing it functioning as payment. After establishing the general monetary character of each of the four yo goods, the author offers the hypothesis that is was because of this basic character that these very goods were designated as yo. Moreover, the fact that each of these goods seems to have been grouped together regionally suggests the existence of trade spheres using specific "in kind" monetary forms. For example, in the eastern provinces cloth functioned as the medium of exchange and payment for goods, while in western Japan rice and wata played those roles. The present study is an attempt to add a new viewpoint to the conventional research, which has tended to recognize in a vague sort of way that rice and cloth probably functioned as money in ancient Japan.

抄録全体を表示

The Oromo migrated into the Christian kingdom of northern Ethiopia in the 16th and 17th centuries. Although several studies have examined the military and administrative reforms that occurred during this period, little is known about the kingdom’s financial reforms. I evaluated the historical significance of the Queima cattle

imposed during this time and concluded the following. The state revenue of the kingdom decreased during the period of the Oromo migration. Every person who owned cows paid one cow for every ten cows owned every three years during the reign of Susnəyos (r. 1607–1632); this was known as Queima by the Jesuits and täkws in Amharic. Queima was imposed during the first half of the 1550s in an effort to reconstruct the kingdom, which had been devastated by the Muslims during the first half of the 16th century. Yohännəs I (r. 1667–1682) abolished the in 1667 for several reasons, including the heavy burden it placed on the peasantry. Queima was a principal , and the revenue collected from it contributed to the survival of the kingdom.

抄録全体を表示

The purpose of the present paper is to examine the financial organization of the ritsuryo central government and the Emperor's involvement in and control of the administration of bureaucratic organization. During the 8th and 9th centuries, the regulations of Sokoryo (倉庫令) stipulated that orders for disbursement should be issued to the Okurasho (大蔵省), the Ministry of the Treasury, and the other ministries in the diplomatic form called Daijokan-pu (太政官符), while in reality these Daijokan-pu were delivered to Okurasho via Nakatsukasasho (中務省), the Ministry of Central Affairs, which transmitted the received orders to the Okurasho in the diplomatic form of Nakatsukasasho-i (中務省移). Being a body of very close attendants to the Emperor, the Ministry of Central Affairs was authorized to command the offices responsible for storing collected . As an extension of this function, the officials of the Ministry were required to present themselves at the warehouses for inspecting receipts and disbursements. The ideal method of the Emperor's control over fiscal administration was that he should supervise in person the process of transforming collected into central government revenue and paying expenditure from this revenue. It seems that the above-mentioned fiscal function of the Nakatsukasasho realized this ideal through the Emperor's indirect presence. However by the middle of the 10th century the system had changed considerably. It became possible for the central government to issue receipts for collected without inspection and spend the under certain administrative directions before it was delivered to the warehouse. Under this system financial affairs could be settled through the transfer of documents without transferring the itself. Along with this change, the Nakatsukasasho was no longer involved in fiscal administration. The bureaucratic organization had obtained the capacity to perform its duties through the transfer of documents, independent of the Emperor's presence, whether it be direct or indirect through the Nakatsukasasho.

抄録全体を表示

Freedom in the abstract sense of the word might be defined as the condition of being able to choose and to carry out purposes of life. The real content of this concept contains freedoms of various kinds from the human relations of various kinds. We must, therefore, observe it concretely in relation to the given society as a whole. In the ancient Greek society the word eleutheria represented the independence of the autonomous citizen-body of each polis, and freedom from slavery, from debt, and from tyranny and the Persian rule. Of the Mycenaean period we find some of the Linear B tablets on which the words relating to freedom —eleuthera, eleutheron, eleutherose— were written in particular meaning. They always represent exemption from paying a certain amount of (do-so-mo). It is the king who excused payment: and those who were exempted are smiths, shipbuilders, huntsmen, planters, and etc. of several villages which were obliged to contribute flax. We find a different expression of the obviously same meaning on some tablets of Ma- and Na- series. With collapse of the -systems of the Mycenaean monarchies, the concept of freedom as exemption from seems to have disappeared.

抄録全体を表示

This article examines the peculiar characteristics of cadasters conducted during the Toyotomi Hideyoshi regime by focusing on why the currency described as "eirakusen" 永楽銭 (originally denoting copper coins minted during the Ming Dynasty's Yongle 永楽 era) was adopted in 1590 as the standard for taxation (kandaka 貫高) in Aizu, which was part of the territory under the feudal lords of Mutsu and Dewa Provinces chastised by Hideyoshi in the Ou Shioki 奥羽仕置 of 1590. The reason for basing land taxes on "eirakusen" instead of rice output (kokudaka 石高) in the Aizu fief was because 1) the kandaka system was already functioning in Aizu prior to the Shioki and 2) it was deemed necessary to secure and occupy the territory as quickly as possible. Upon his arrival in Aizu, Gamo Ujisato, to whom Hideyoshi had granted the fief under the Shioki's provisions, began collecting . Although the research to date purports that half of the was rendered in rice and the other in money, the author argues that the process was not exactly that straight forward; for payment in money was the rule, and according to the tax ledgers, the denomination was "eirakusen". Based on this conclusion the author turns to the question of what sort of currency "eirakusen" actually was. After comparing the "eirakusen" actually levied as with the value of gold during the time in question, the author finds that "eirakusen" was worth about the same as the normal currency of the day, leading him to conclude that in this case "eirakusen" did not denote Ming Yongle era Chinese coins and had no special value. Noting the fact that in the feudal territory of the Gohojo Clan immediately before its downfall that the value of Ming Yongle era coins was regarded as more valuable than other coins, the Toyotomi regime mistakenly assumed that this was true throughout Mutsu and Dewa, and accordingly established that currency, which it called "eirakusen", as the means of payment in the provisions of the Shioki. Since Ming Yongle era coins were in fact not circulating in the region, the "eirakusen" unit of set in Aizu did not exist in form, but only as entries on the pages of tax ledgers. Consequently, the "eirakusen" ledger entries had to be converted into circulating currency and rice at fixed rates of exchange before could be collected. Although land policy in territories occupied by the Toyotomi regime often seems to have flexibly responded to what was actually happening on the ground, there were cases in which the process of preparing its system of military vassalage would become so hectic that even local monetary currency circulation practices were not sufficiently understood.

抄録全体を表示

The fluctuation between the first and third person in the text on the Tell al-Rimāḥ Stela has been regarded either as a way, in which Nergal-ēreš takes to himself credit for the described achievements, or as a clumsiness of the scribe who conflated multiple source materials into the text. While the textual features may suggest that the inscription was copied from written source, it seems that the scribe deliberately omitted the description of entrustment of receiving , which is supposed to be described in the source text. Another possibility is that in the original text, all the verbs are expressed in the first person, and in this case, our scribe intentionally changed the first person of the verb in the description of receiving to the third person. The unusual use of the third person in the text might have been employed by the scribe so that the subject of the verb could alternatively be construed as Nergal-ēreš, instead of Adad-nērārī III. This scribal art, however, does not reflect the intention of Nergal-ēreš but of Adad-nērārī, the most possible commissioner of the inscription. The apparent clumsiness found in the change between the first and third person might alternatively be regarded as a scribal technique to achieve two purposes: to credit the king for the military exploits; and to lead the readers to alternatively see Nergal-ēreš as a possible candidate for the one who received the .

抄録全体を表示

居酒屋が見直されている。といっても大手チェーンではなく，古くからその町に根づいている大衆酒場である。2008年には「古典酒場」という雑誌も誕生し東京北区にある下町酒場にもずいぶんスーツ姿の人が増えた。人は酒場に何を求めるのか? マニュアルの応対，オペレーションの効率化による低価格化，アンケートによる改善，それでは自分のやっている仕事と同じようであり憩えない。安くてうまい肴，懸命に働く店の方の姿，時に育まれた雰囲気とそれを維持するための努力，そういった場に浸ることを筆者は「酒場浴」と呼んでいる。
最近，製造者は，力を持った流通の方ばかり気にしているように見える。実際にお酒が飲まれている現場(酒場)をみることが酒造りへの喜びと誇りにつながり，またヒントもあるのではないかと思う。どうですか今晩？

抄録全体を表示

This article examines changes in trading between Choson Korea and Qing Manchuria, from 1637 to 1644, focusing on Choson's situation and reaction to the changes. Choson, who was defeated by Qing during the Bingzi War in 1637, was ordered to send regular tributes to Qing, and princes to Shenyang. Choson began to send tributary goods and an annual gift, suibi, to Qing. Suibi was intended to compensate for Qing's weak economy. Choson also began an open market at the Qing border, Hoeryong, in 1638. After 1637, irregular trading between Choson and Qing increased. This increase forced the Choson government to collect goods from all over the country to meet the demands. However, Choson could also buy commodities from Qing for agricultural reproduction, such as cows and cotton seeds. Choson prohibited officials from carrying tobacco and qingbu, Chinese blue cotton cloth, to Qing, and restricted the number of horses that could be taken. Choson was given a lot of additional responsibilities and duties related to Qing from 1637 to 1644. It is likely that Choson was forced to support Qing economically. After Qing entered Beijing, the need for Korean goods decreased dramatically.

抄録全体を表示