個別報告論文
沿岸資源管理に対するコミュニティの参加の規定要因の分析
―フィリピン・カガヤン州ゴンサガ町の海洋保護区を事例として―
2016 年 52 巻 4 号 p. 241-246
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2016 年 52 巻 4 号 p. 241-246
本研究では，フィリピン・カガヤン州ゴンサガ町の2つの海洋保護区（MPA）を事例に，地域住民のMPA管理への参加についてその規定要因を分析した．同町内でMPAを持つ3村の内，サンホセ村から150，カシタン村から100，計250世帯を住民台帳から無作為抽出し，2015年3月に調査員が訪問して現地方言でインタビューする質問紙調査を行った．これにより社会経済条件や世帯特性，漁業経営の状況，MPAに関する認識・意見や管理への関与等のデータを収集した．LRチョウ検定により漁家と非漁家でデータの構造が異なることが分かったため，漁家，非漁家のデータセットに分け，MPA管理への参加の規定要因をプロビット分析した．その結果，漁家においては漁業所得，農業所得，（禁漁区に代わる）代替的な生計支援事業への参加の有無，パヤオの必要性等，非漁家では年齢，社会関係（村役場職員か否か）等の要因が関係していることが分かった．
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), a marine regions set aside for conservation and management measures, have been established in the Philippines as a response to the devastation of coastal habitats as well as decline in fisheries productivity (White et al., 2006). MPAs, in the form of reserves, sanctuaries and parks, are widely recognized as coastal resource management (CRM) strategy around the country and is supported by the local government units (LGUs) and national government agencies (NGAs).
The country’s Local Government Code of 1991 empowers the LGUs to institutionalize the planning, implementation and monitoring of CRM programs. CRM in the Philippines is best accomplished by community-based participatory approach wherein local coastal residents are involved in managing the resources upon which they depend hence striving strong sense of ownership and responsibility (DENR et al., 2001).
Community, taken in geographical and functional context, is a group of people living in a specific area (e.g. village) and shares significant aspects of common life such as customs, manners, traditions and language (Marasigan et al., 1992).
Several studies have addressed the concerns for a successful and effective community-based MPA management practices in the country and these researches identified local residents’ involvement as one of the important factors (Pollnac et al., 2001; Pomeroy and Carlos, 1997). The realization of MPA as a conservation tool improves when the local community participate (Pollnac et al., 2001) as it makes the management and monitoring of MPAs easy and inexpensive (Uychiaoco et al., 2005). Involvement of the community in the management of MPAs is essential because of their traditional knowledge and are direct users of the resources (Fernandez and Subade, 2015).
Despite recognition of the important roles of community members on MPA management in the country, little attention has been given to examine factors that contribute to their willingness to participate voluntarily. Effects of socio-economic and demographic factors on the attitudes and perceptions of fishers towards MPAs were extensively studied (Fernandez and Subade, 2015; Hamilton, 2012; Launio et al., 2010), however the relationship between these factors on the actual participation on MPA management is not clearly analyzed. In this study, we contribute to understanding the socio-economic factors that influence the involvement of the community in the conservation initiatives through MPAs in Cagayan as a case. We specifically focused on the effect of fishing income and alternative livelihood projects (LPs) as the community largely depend on marine resources as their source of living. Establishment of MPA affects fishing activities, hence it is noteworthy to consider the influence of fishing income and LPs on their participation. Understanding how these factors influence participation of the community can provide information to policy makers to effectively manage the resources.
Cagayan Province, located in the northern Philippines with its coastal waters situated along the flow of the Kuroshio Current, is known for its diverse ecosystems. However, depletion of coastal resources has been noted recently due mainly to environmental degradation and indiscriminate fishing. To cope with the declining tendency of coastal productivities, MPAs were established under the support of LGUs and were managed by the community-level fisherfolk organizations.
Gonzaga (Fig. 1) is a municipality composed of 25 villages, 11 of which are in the coastal areas. The town’s economy is basically farming and capture-based fisheries as it is bounded by the Babuyan Channel on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the east.
Map showing the location of Gonzaga, Cagayan Philippines
In 1999, the municipality has defined and proclaimed MPAs in its 2 villages to protect its coastal resources in further exploitation and degradation. Established through Ordinance No. 09, San Jose MPA covers an area of 342.35 ha with a no take zone of 72.28 ha while Casitan MPA covers an area of 146 ha with 42.32 ha of no take zone. Marine reserve is an area where fishing and other activities are allowed nevertheless regulations are set to control access while the no-take zone is a region where all extractive practices including human access is prohibited (White et al., 2006). The 2 MPAs are managed by the San Jose Fisherfolk Association and Casitan MPA Development Association respectively.
Community participation in the MPA management is encouraged by taking part in identified activities with predetermined objectives such as law enforcement, monitoring and maintenance of the area by voluntary manner.
To develop opportunities for other income sources in the village, the NGAs in collaboration with the LGU provided the community a variety of LPs such as fish cages, fish traps, payao (fish aggregating device) seaweeds, abalone, oyster and sea urchin culture, ecotourism and hog raising were provided to the community as an alternative source of income1. Fishers and non-fishers who take part in any of these projects invest time in the operation and management of it. The LPs were still at the initial stage, but household participants expect much from these interventions.
(2) MethodologyA structured household survey was conducted in March 2015 to collect data. A total of 250 respondents (San Jose=150; Casitan=100) was selected by random sampling from the List of Registered Household Heads in each village. Socio-economic status, fishing profiles and MPA participation and perceptions of the respondents were gathered through one-on-one interview using questionnaires. Trained enumerators who are familiar with the local dialect (Ilocano) administered the questionnaires to the respondents.
Since the local community is composed of individuals with varied interests and effect on CRM, LR Chow test was conducted to examine whether fishers’ and non-fishers’ data sets should be analyzed separately. Interrelationship of variables was analyzed by probit models. In the models, the concern lies mainly on the effect of the income and LPs on MPA participation. Income from fishing affect participation as it connotes dependency to marine resources while LPs are assumed to provide additional income hence will serve as motivation to participate. We hypothesized that fishers who gain more from fishing and those who join LPs are more likely to participate.
For the model building, income variable was tried in different functional forms and combinations to assess its fitness. For model estimation, exploratory variables were added to the theoretical variables to check whether they explain much variation in the dependent variable. All important predictors were considered in the model and deletes one at a time until reaching a point where the remaining variables all make significant partial contributions to predicting y. Models were estimated using statistical software R.
Among fishers, average age is 46 years with a household size of 4. Eighty percent (80%) of them are inhabitants of the village since birth with a mean residence of 42 years. Average years of education is between 6–7.
Non-fishers’ average age is 47 years with a household size of 4–5. Average period of stay in the village is 37 years as 45% of them are in-migrants due to marriage or seek of livelihood. Average years of education is 9–10. Formal education in the country takes at least 14 years from elementary to 4-years in a university.
(2) Income and livelihood diversificationThe average annual household income of fisher respondents is Php 118,560 while Php 118,300 for non-fisher respondents. This is 49.5% way below the country’s average and 39.2% below the regional average which is Php 235,000 and 195,000 respectively (FIES, 2012) 2.
Among the fishers, average income from fishing is Php 71,000 and some of them were also engaged in farming. Other non-fishing sources of income in the community include hog raising, vending (market and small enterprises), driving, wages from regular jobs and remittance from family members working abroad.
(3) Perceptions of respondents on MPARespondents expressed strong views and high affirmative response to queries regarding MPA perceptions. Fishers want to protect marine resources because marine life depends on it while non-fishers perceived that it is also their duty to protect the resources for the future generation.
(4) Proportions of respondents supporting the establishment of the MPA and participates in its managementEighty eight percent (88%) of the fisher respondents claim support to the establishment of the MPA believing that MPA contributes to the increase chance of catching bigger fish and maintenance of natural habitat while 12% disagree due to lesser fishing areas and source of user’s conflict. Eighty two percent (82%) of the non-fisher respondents agree on the establishment of MPA because they believe that this will open opportunities through ecotourism and in consideration for the future generation. Eighteen percent (18%) has negative acceptance because of unawareness on MPA concepts.
Nevertheless, despite the high percentage of support for the establishment of the MPA, only 29% of the fishers and 9% of non-fishers participate in its management. Participation in MPA management means taking part in one or more of these activities: (1) oversee the security of the MPA from illegal activities and enforcement of the laws; (2) conduct monitoring and assessment of the coastal and marine resources inside and outside the MPA; (3) assist in fund sourcing for the sustainable management of MPA; and (4) organize an information drive in the community about MPA concepts and guidelines.
(5) Factors affecting participation of respondents in MPA management: Probit analysisUsing probit regression analysis, the results of the 2 models for each data sets were shown in this paper. Model 2 in Tables 1 and 2, being the best fitted models were used to explain the determinants of participation on MPA management of fishers and non-fishers respectively.
| Variable | Model 1 | Model 2 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Intercept | 9.747 (1.031) | 13.0700 (1.453) | |
| Income from agriculture | –0.00007*** (–3.271) | –0.00007*** (–3.204) | |
|
|
0.0245*** (3.766) | 0.0236*** (3.751) | |
| Income from fishing | –0.00003 (–1.457) | –0.00003* (–1.692) | |
| Log (Income from fishing) | –2.488** (–1.984) | –2.706** (–2.231) | |
|
|
0.0428* (1.787) | 0.04673** (2.054) | |
| Necessity of payao | 1.074** ( 2.114) | 0.9622** (2.032) | |
| Recipient of livelihood project | 2.027*** (4.593) | 1.998*** (4.683) | |
| Perception statement2) | 0.7834** (2.164) | 0.7382** (2.128) | |
| Education | 0.03066 (0.215) | — | |
| Age | 0.02608 (1.491) | — | |
| Loglikelihood | –33.76 | –34.95 | |
| McFadden’s R Square | 0.536 | 0.519 | |
| AIC | 89.53 | 87.90 | |
| No. of observations | 121 | 121 |
1) Level of Significance: *10%; **5%; ***1%; values in parenthesis are z-values.
2) I want to protect marine resources because marine life depends on them.
| Variable | Model 1 | Model 2 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Intercept | –1.697 (–0.129) | –6.6774*** (–3.678) | |
| Income per HH member | 0.00003 (0.350) | — | |
|
|
0.0046 (0.079) | — | |
| Log (Income per HH member) | –1.225 (–0.582) | — | |
| Recipient of livelihood project | 9.478 (0.018) | — | |
| Education | 0.1923 (1.158) | — | |
| Age | 0.08195** (2.829) | 0.0427** (2.828) | |
| Respondent is a village official | 4.3080*** (3.418) | 3.0635*** (4.316) | |
| Perception statement2) | 0.7375* (1.732) | 0.45105** (2.051) | |
| Loglikelihood | –12.40 | –24.01 | |
| McFadden’s R Square | 0.689 | 0.398 | |
| AIC | 42.81 | 56.02 | |
| No. of observations | 129 | 129 |
1) Level of Significance: *10%; **5%; ***1%; values in parenthesis are z-values.
2) Protection of marine environment is my duty.
We calculated the effects of income from fishing and farming on the probability of participation in MPA management by respective derivatives of an equation. A fisher in the village spend more time either in fishing or in farming. Results showed that in the case of Php 21,000 or more fishing income, the derivative with respect to income from fishing is positive. Hence, in the case where income from fishing increases, the probability of participation tends to increase as well. Among the fisher-respondents, 80.2% earns Php 21,000 and more from fishing while 19.8% receives less than Php 21,000. At the same time, in the case of fishers who earn Php 29,000 or more from farming, the derivative with respect to income from farming is negative, which means that the tendency to participate in MPA management decreases. Among the fisher-respondents, 84.3% earn less than Php 29,000 from farming and only 15.7% receives more than Php 29,000. The regression result indicates that those fishers who relied much on fishing and less on farming for their income are more likely to participate in MPA management. This suggests that fishers who gain higher benefits from fishing show a higher inclination to participate. This implies that fishers are concerned with conservation initiatives to safeguard the primary source of their income.
The model also displayed positive sign conditions on variables recipient of LPs, the necessity to keep payao and those who want to protect the resources. Estimated result showed that fisher respondents who benefit from the LPs tend to participate in MPA management. MPA, in a way alters fishing practices of residents, especially small-scale fishers, hence providing LPs for local people need to be considered. Fishers who recognize the necessity to keep payao in the area also showed positive reactions to MPA management. Furthermore, fishers who believed that it is their duty to protect the environment because marine life depends on it tend to participate in MPA.
For non-fishers’ data set, the model showed positive sign conditions on variables age, village officials and those who perceived protection of environment is their duty. Older non-fishers tend to participate in MPA management. Respondents developed sense of belongingness in the area. Results confirmed that non-fishers who are village officials and who believed it is their duty to protect the natural resources tend to participate in MPA management. One of the main roles of LGUs in CRM is support to community involvement (DENR et al., 2001). Awareness on the value of the resources increase tendency to participate.
Despite the fact that community recognizes the importance of the MPA for the protection and conservation of marine resources, encouraging long-term participation is still a challenge. Institutional support policies and mechanisms should be undertaken to enhance these factors to ensure long lasting participation of the community for a successful MPA implementation. In relation to this, the following are implications for policy and research:
(1) This study suggests that income from fishing positively affects participation in MPA management. Dependency in the coastal resources possibly increase consciousness of fishers on the status of the resources, hence they participate in MPA. In addition, an existence of a condition that prevents participation of low income fishers (earning less than Php 21,000) was observed. Investigating this circumstance and development of strategies to mitigate the effect of income on participation is necessary to consider for further study.
(2) Both fishers and non-fishers showed interest to participate in MPA management. The result showed that MPA is managed not only by the fishing sector, but jointly by both groups in the village. A holistic approach to rural development is necessary to gain wider support for CRM.
(3) MPA is basically managed through voluntary manner, however a strong support from the government is indispensable to encourage insistent participation in MPA management. In the case of Gonzaga, community members expect much from the presence of LPs hence appropriate and sustainable LPs that could boost participation is an essential consideration.
(4) Awareness on the importance of resources stimulates the participation of the community. A continuous environmental education that would elicit consciousness should be undertaken.
The authors acknowledge the assistance of the enumerators in the conduct of the study. This work is supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant No. 26281062.
