Original papers
Quality Characteristics of Functional Restructured Spent Hen Meat Slices Developed by Utilizing Different Binders and Extenders
2018 Volume 24 Issue 2 Pages 241-247
Details
2018 Volume 24 Issue 2 Pages 241-247
The present study was conducted to evaluate the quality characteristics of functional restructured spent hen meat slices developed by utilizing different binders and extenders. Potato, texturized soy protein, whey protein concentrate, oat meal and barley flour were utilized in different combinations to get three different blends viz. A, B and C. These were used to replace the lean meat in pre-standardized formulation of restructured spent hen meat slices (RSHMS). Hardness, gumminess and chewiness of RSHMS with blend C was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than blend A and B. RSHMS with blend C had significantly (P < 0.01) higher dietary fiber, iron, copper, zinc contents and lower cholesterol content as compared to the control. On the basis of above findings, the product with blend C was adjudged as the most acceptable and was adopted as functional restructured spent hen meat slices.
The poultry sector has made a tremendous progress and emerged out as an organized, scientific and one of the fastest growing sector of livestock economy. Poultry meat is the fastest growing component of world meat demand. Large stride in production of chicken and replacement of old stocks before winter lead to availability of large amount of spent hen meat, which are generally considered as poor quality meat due to its higher toughness and less juiciness. Hence, it is required to make use of the abundantly available spent hen meat in an efficient and profitable manner. Restructured meat products are prepared from partially or completely disassembled meat by reforming in different forms. The restructuring of meat and meat products enables the conversion of less valuable meat components to produce high quality palatable meat products at reduced cost.
There is increasing trend in consumption of readily available, healthy and tasty foods. Functional food is ‘any food having disease-preventing and/or health-promoting benefits in addition to their nutritive value’. Meat, as one of the most important commonly consumed foods, offers excellent way to promote intake of functional ingredients without any radical changes in eating habits. Novel value added, nutritious and healthy processed meat products can be developed through innovative ideas. Functional ingredients such as vegetable proteins, dietary fibers, herbs and spices can be directly incorporated into meat products during processing to improve their functional value for consumers (Zhang et al., 2010).
Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a rich source of phenolic compounds, ascorbic acid, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus and B-vitamins. It has high content of resistant starch, many antioxidants (Brown, 2008) including ferrous ion chelating effects and strong reducing capacity. Swelling capacity, gel formation and water-binding capacity make it useful in a variety of food (Fuentes-Zaragoza et al., 2010). Soy proteins are good quality proteins and have many health-enhancing properties. Texturized soy protein provides a meat-like texture that contributes to mouthfeel (Egbert and Borders, 2006). Important functional properties of soy protein in food systems are gelling or textural capabilities, water absorption, elasticity and color control (Singh et al., 2008). Soy has been reported to be useful in prevention and treatment of cancer, osteoporosis and in the relief of menopausal symptoms (Halsted, 2003). Soy protein has been used as a functional ingredient in various FOSHU (food for specified health uses) meat products such as low-fat sausage and reported to be beneficial in maintaining acceptable blood cholesterol level (Arihara, 2004). Whey proteins are being widely used in meat and poultry products as binding, extending and texture modifying agents. The ability of whey proteins to form three dimensional gel structure to improve texture and water binding is very useful. Whey proteins contain all essential amino acids and are one of the best sources of branched amino acids, especially leucine and are continuously being used as a functional ingredient (Ohr, 2012).
Foods with high dietary fibers have multiple health benefits as it stimulates the proliferation of intestinal flora, trapping mutagenic and carcinogenic substances and decreases time of intestinal transit. Regular intake of 20–35 gm of dietary fiber controls blood pressure, reduces cholesterol and glucose levels in the blood, causes weight loss and improves immunity (Anderson et al., 2009; Dhingra et al., 2012). The meat is devoid of dietary fiber and supplementation of meat products with soluble and insoluble fiber is an effective way to address health issues.
Barley (Hordeum vulgare) and Oat (Avena sativa) are excellent source of dietary fiber and other bioactive constituents. Different physiological effects of β-glucan in isolated form or as a constituent of oat and barley products are related to attenuation of post-prandial plasma glucose and insulin responses, higher transport of bile acids towards lower parts of the intestinal tract and higher excretions of bile acids or lowering of serum cholesterol levels. (Lyly et al., 2007). Oats contain 55% soluble fibre (β-glucan) and 45% insoluble fibre, besides many phytochemicals, phenolics and ligans, which are converted to enterolactone in intestines and provide protection against heart problems and liver damage by taxol (Karaduman et al., 2010).
There has been a general increase in the health consensus among the people and demand for quality healthy food with low fat, high fiber and protein at affordable price has increased. Blending of high nutrient foods with phytochemicals provides one of the most viable functional food strategies. Spent meat is available in plenty and its conversion into a high quality functional food is an excellent alternative to provide healthy quality food. The present study was conducted to develop functional restructured spent hen meat slices by partial addition of standardized blend of potato, texturized soy protein, whey protein concentrate, oat meal and barley flour.
Sources of raw materials Live spent hens (White leghorn) were procured from Central Avian Research Institute (CARI), Izatnagar, Bareilly, India. They were dressed and deboned manually in the Experimental Abattoir of the Division of Livestock Products Technology in Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar, Bareilly. The food ingredients were procured from local market of Bareilly. Whey protein concentrate (WPC) was procured form Mahaan Proteins Ltd., New Delhi.
Preparation of restructured spent hen meat slices Restructured spent hen meat slices (RSHMS) were prepared with the standardized formulation using three different blends (Table 1) by the method of Gupta et al. (2015). Briefly, spent hen meat was cut manually into small chunks of 1–1.5 cm3 and massaged in paddle mixer along with salt, sodium tripolyphosphate and sodium nitrite to facilitate the extraction of protein. Ice, spice mix, condiments, refined wheat flour and extender blends were added one by one and massaged to prepare the final mix of tacky exudate. The final mix was weighed, stuffed into aluminum moulds and cooked in steam cooker for 50 min without pressure. Cooked meat blocks were sliced after cooling into small pieces of 7 mm thickness with food slicer.
| Ingredients % (w/w) | Control | Binder/extender blends | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | B | C | ||
| Spent hen meat | 78.4 | 58.4 | 58.4 | 60.4 |
| Ice | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 |
| Table salt | 1.8 | 1.8 | 1.8 | 1.8 |
| Sodium tripolyphosphate | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 |
| Refined wheat flour (maida) | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 |
| Condiments | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 |
| Dry spices | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 |
| Sodium nitrite | 150 ppm | 150 ppm | 150 ppm | 150 ppm |
| Potato | - | 4 | 3 | 3 |
| Texurized soy protein | - | 3 | 6 | 5 |
| Oat meal | - | 4 | 3 | 3 |
| Barley flour | - | 8 | 8 | 7 |
| Whey protein concentrate | - | 1 | - | 0.4 |
Proximate analysis Moisture, crude protein, fat and ash percent of restructured spent hen meat slices were determined by standard procedures of Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1995) by using hot air oven, Soxhlet apparatus, Kjeldhal apparatus and muffle furnace respectively.
pH
pH was measured as per the method described by Trout et al. (1992).
Cooking yield
Cooking yield was calculated and expressed in percentage by the following formula.
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Texture profile analysis The textural properties were evaluated by using texture profile analyzer as per the method described by Bourne (1978). Chilled samples were tempered to bring to room temperature and cut into 1 cm3. The samples were placed on a platform and compressed by a compression probe (P75) at a crosshead speed of 10 mm/sec through a two cycle sequence, using a 50 kg load cell. Texture profile parameters such as hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness were analyzed.
Lovibond Tintometer colour values The colour of restructured spent hen meat slices was measured using Lovibond Tintometer. The hue and chroma values were determined as described by Little (1975) and Froehlich et al. (1983) respectively. The hue and chroma values were determined using given formula:
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Mineral profile Zinc, manganese, iron and copper were estimated using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer while sodium and potassium was estimated using Flame photometer.
Total cholesterol Lipid of restructured spent hen meat slices was extracted by method of Folch et al. (1957) and the cholesterol content was determined as per Sabir et al. (2003). 200 µL of lipid extract was taken in the test tube. 2 mL chloroform and 2 mL Liberman- Burchard reagent was added in test tube. The test tube was covered and kept in dark for 15 minutes. Blank was prepared using 200 µL of chloroform instead of lipid extract and treated in similar fashion. The optimal density was measured at 640 nm in a spectrophotometer to determine cholesterol content.
Dietary fiber Total dietary fiber of restructured spent hen meat slices was determined by the enzymatic method as described by Furda (1981). Defatted sample (2 g) was dispersed in 200 mL of 0.005N HCl and boiled for 20 minutes. The suspension was cooled to 60°C, 0.3 g disodium EDTA was added and pH was adjusted to 6.0–6.3 with 0.005 N NaOH. 12 mL phosphate buffer (pH 6.0–6.5) was added and the interaction was continued for 40 minutes at 60°C to ensure interaction of pectin with minimum degradation. The suspension was then cooled to 20-30°C before incubating over night with 10 mg of bacterial α-amylase and 10 mg of bacterial protease by slow stirring with magnetic bar. The suspension was filtered through a coarse tared Gooch filtering crucible containing glass wool and the residue was washed with small amount of water, alcohol and acetone before being dried in vacuum oven at 70°C for overnight. The filtrate was acidified with a few drops of conc. HCl to bring the pH to 2–3 and four volumes of ethanol were added slowly and the suspension was kept as such for about one hour. The precipitate was filtered through a Gooch crucible containing glass wool and then washed with 75% ethanol, absolute ethanol and acetone before drying at 70°C in a vacuum oven overnight. The residue was weighed to determine the dietary fiber content.
Sensory evaluation The restructured spent hen meat slices were subjected to sensory evaluation by experienced panel (seven members) of the scientists and postgraduate student of Division of Livestock Products Technology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar. Sensory evaluation was carried out using 8-point descriptive scale (Keeton, 1983) for general appearance, flavour, texture, binding, juiciness and overall acceptability, where 8 = excellent and 1 = extremely poor. Plain water was provided to rinse the mouth between the samples.
Statistical analysis The experiment was replicated three times and duplicate samples were drawn for each parameter. The data obtained were analyzed statistically for variance, Duncan's multiple range test and t test using as per the procedure of Snedecor and Cochran (1995).
The physico-chemical properties of restructured spent hen meat slices (RSHMS) with different binder/extender blends and control are presented in Table 2. The cooking yield of RSHMS with blends A, B and C was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that of control, which might be attributed to the gelatinizing property of starch imparted by synergistic action of potato, barley flour and oat meal. The pH of RSHMS with blends B and C was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than control. Higher pH of different blend products might be due to the replacement of lean meat with different binders and extenders, which had higher or neutral pH. The moisture percentage of RSHMS with blends A, B and C was significantly lower (P < 0.05) than control. This might be attributed to the increase in the dry matter content of the products due to the replacement of about 18–20% of lean meat with different binders and extenders. Protein and fat percentage of RSHMS with all the blends were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that of control. It might be due to the replacement of lean meat with binders and extenders having low protein and fat content. Ash percentage of product with blend B was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that of control. Carbohydrate percentage of product with different blends were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that of control. Moisture to protein ratio of RSHMS with blend A was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than control. This might be due to the higher proportion of barley flour, oat meal and potato, which are low in protein and high in carbohydrate.
| Parameter | Control | Binder/extender blends | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | B | C | ||
| Cooking yield (%) | 92.17b ± 0.51 | 95.00a ± 0.34 | 94.40a ± 0.62 | 95.07a ± 0.45 |
| Product pH | 6.24b ± 0.006 | 6.25ab ± 0.004 | 6.26a ± 0.003 | 6.26a ± 0.003 |
| Moisture (%) | 71.63a ± 0.46 | 68.57b ± 0.40 | 68.31b ± 0.44 | 68.34b ± 0.35 |
| Protein (%) | 18.49a ± 0.20 | 16.78b ± 0.44 | 17.09b ± 0.42 | 17.34b ± 0.39 |
| Fat (%) | 2.90a ± 0.05 | 2.48b ± 0.04 | 2.41b ± 0.03 | 2.45b ± 0.04 |
| Ash (%) | 2.92a ± 0.04 | 2.98ab ± 0.05 | 3.07b ± 0.05 | 3.02ab ± 0.04 |
| Carbohydrate | 4.05a ± 0.05 | 9.17b ± 0.72 | 9.09b ± 0.78 | 8.83ab ± 0.70 |
| Moisture:Protein ratio | 3.87b ± 0.04 | 4.09a ± 0.09 | 3.98b ± 0.09 | 3.94b ± 0.05 |
Means with different superscripts in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05)
Mean sensory scores of restructured spent hen meat slices with different blends of binders and extenders are presented in Table 3. The mean scores for the general appearance of product with blend C was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than control. RSHMS with blend C had uniformity in colour and received better evaluation than those with blends A and B. Flavour scores of RSHMS with blends A and B were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than control, however flavour score of product with blend C was comparable to control. The reduction in flavour scores might be due to the dilution of meaty flavour as a result of the replacement of lean meat at 18- 20% level by different combination of binders and extenders. Earlier, Allen et al. (1999) have also reported that oat fibres delay the release of some of the flavour volatiles from low fat frankfurters.
| Sensory attributes | Control | Binder/extender blends | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | B | C | ||
| General appearance | 6.97b ± 0.06 | 7.03ab ± 0.06 | 7.08ab ± 0.05 | 7.13a ± 0.05 |
| Flavour | 7.13a ± 0.05 | 6.84c ± 0.07 | 6.89bc ± 0.06 | 7.04ab ± 0.04 |
| Texture | 7.09a ± 0.06 | 6.86b ± 0.08 | 6.95ab ± 0.06 | 7.01ab ± 0.06 |
| Binding | 7.03 ± 0.06 | 7.07 ± 0.06 | 7.09 ± 0.04 | 7.10 ± 0.05 |
| Juiciness | 7.09 ± 0.06 | 6.96 ± 0.09 | 6.98 ± 0.07 | 7.05 ± 0.04 |
| Overall acceptability | 7.11a ± 0.05 | 6.85b ± 0.08 | 6.87b ± 0.07 | 7.02ab ± 0.06 |
Means with different superscripts in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05)
Mean sensory scores are based on 8-point descriptive scale where 1: extremely poor and 8: extremely desirable.
Texture score of restructured spent hen meat slices with blend A was significantly lower (P < 0.05) than control, which might be attributed to the softening of products due to higher level of barley flour, oat meal and potato. There was no significant difference in binding and juiciness scores of control and RSHMS with different blends, however, a marginal increase in the binding scores and marginal decrease in juiciness scores of different blend products was observed as compared to control. The findings were in accordance with the earlier reports of Bushway et al. (1982) and Chang and Carpenter (1997), who also reported that addition of oat bran and potato starch decreases juiciness of frankfurters. Overall acceptability scores of products with blends A and B were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than control, while that of blend product C was quite comparable to control and had very good rating. It might be due to better flavour and texture scores as compared to products with blends A and B, since overall acceptability is the reflection of other sensory attributes.
Texture profile analysis of the control and restructured spent hen meat slices with different blends of binders and extenders has been presented in Table 4. Hardness of products with blend A and B were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than control and blend C. It might be due to the higher content of beta glucan in barley and oat (Steenblock et al., 2001; Sharma and Kotari, 2017). Similarly, Alveraz and Barbut (2013) also reported reduction in the hardness of cooked meat emulsion with increase in β-glucan. Farias et al. (1996) developed a low fat, low sodium restructured beef steaks using potato starch, oat starch, carrageenan gum and a mixture of all three and found that all the products were softer as compared to control. Blends of tapioca starch, oat fiber and whey protein produced a more tender meat product (Troy et al., 1999). There was no significant difference in the adhesiveness of products with different blends as well as control. Nowak et al. (2007) reported that the adhesiveness of less than −0.1 Ns results in better acceptability and proper slicing in cooked meat products like mortadella and bologna. Springiness of RSHMS with blend A was significantly lower (P < 0.05) than control and products with blends B as well as C, however, it was comparable among the later two. Decrease in springiness might be attributed to the compact binding nature of starch, which reduces elasticity of the products. It means that the binding of meat blocks is compact in the presence of polysaccharide starch. Gels formed with polysaccharides favor the formation of a more compact and stronger heat induced protein matrix (Carballo et al., 1996). Cohesiveness of RSHMS with blends B was significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that of control and product with blend A and C. Reduction in cohesiveness might be due to the pasting behaviour of starch mainly contributed by potato, barley flour and oat meal. Gumminess and chewiness of RSHMS with blends A and B were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that of control and product with blend C. Type and level of non-meat ingredients are one of the factors, which affect textural properties of meat products. A significant decrease (P < 0.05) in hardness, gumminess and chewiness in different blends of RSHMS might be due to higher proportion of barley flour and oat meal. Earlier, Bond et al. (2001) have also reported reduction in the chewiness, springiness, cohesiveness and gumminess of beef patties prepared with incorporation of 10% hydrated cracked waxy hull-less barley as compared to those in the control. Decrease in hardness, gumminess and chewiness with addition of hydrated oat meal have also been reported by Yang et al. (2007). Andic et al. (2010) reported that hardness and chewiness of meat patties increased with addition of whey powder.
| Parameters | Control | Binder/extender blends | ||
| A | B | C | ||
| Hardness (N) | 18.23a ± 0.17 | 10.95c ± 0.64 | 12.3c ± 0.43 | 14.13b ± 0.46 |
| Adhesiveness(Ns) | −0.002 ± 0.0001 | −0.002 ± 0.0007 | −0.002 ± 0.0005 | −0.002 ± 0.001 |
| Springiness | 0.187a ± 0.004 | 0.129c ± 0.009 | 0.145bc ± 0.001 | 0.166b ± 0.001 |
| Cohesiveness | 0.42a ± 0.012 | 0.32b ± 0.05 | 0.25c ± 0.002 | 0.31b ± 0.01 |
| Gumminess (N) | 7.66a ± 0.30 | 3.55c ± 0.24 | 3.06c ± 0.08 | 4.54b ± 0.29 |
| Chewiness (N) | 1.42a ± 0.03 | 0.46c ± 0.04 | 0.44c ± 0.01 | 0.75b ± 0.04 |
Means with different superscripts in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05)
The Lovibond tintometer colour values of control and RSHMS with different blends of binders and extenders have been presented in Table 5. There was no significant difference in the redness and hue values of products with different blends and control. Yellowness and chroma values of products with different blend was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than control. Incorporation of different binders and extenders might have imparted increased b value and thereby increased chroma value of the products with different blends. Earlier, increase in the yellowness of bologna and frankfurters have been reported with addition of oat fiber (Steenblock et al., 2001) and higher value of chroma have been reported in patties with addition of oat flour (Serdaroglu, 2006). Gadekar (2012) also reported significant increase in b value and chroma of restructured goat meat blocks with the addition of texturized soy protein.
| Parameters | Control | Binder/extender blends | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | B | C | ||
| Redness | 1.95 ± 0.16 | 1.86 ± 0.20 | 1.91 ± 0.18 | 1.90 ± 0.14 |
| Yellowness | 3.33b ± 0.10 | 4.16a ± 0.11 | 4.10a ± 0.19 | 4.11a ± 0.19 |
| Hue | 59.89 ± 1.51 | 65.87 ± 2.62 | 64.93 ± 2.36 | 64.97 ± 2.04 |
| Chroma | 3.86b ± 0.16 | 4.59a ± 0.09 | 4.54a ± 0.20 | 4.60a ± 0.15 |
Means with different superscripts in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05)
Hence, on the basis of physico-chemical properties, sensory quality, texture profile and colour values, the restructured spent hen meat slices with blend C could be judged as the most acceptable product and it was further analyzed for mineral profile, total cholesterol and dietary fiber contents (Table 6). There were significant differences in sodium, iron, zinc and copper content of control and product with blend C, however no significant differences were observed in potassium and manganese content. It might be attributed to replacement of spent hen meat with non-meat ingredients, which are low in sodium content as compared to meat. Iron, zinc and copper contents were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in product with blend C as compared to control. Incorporation of different binders and extenders in product with blend C might have contributed to higher content of these minerals. Dawkins et al. (1999) have reported a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in the sodium content of chevon patties prepared with the addition of oat bran. Simlarly, Chatli (2001) reported a significant increase (P < 0.05) in iron and zinc contents of low fat pork patties incorporated with 5% potato starch and 4% hydrated texturized soy protein.
| Parameters | Treatment | |
|---|---|---|
| Control | RSHMS from blend C | |
| Sodium (ppm) | 847.28a ± 4.11 | 830.22b ± 6.05 |
| Potassium (ppm) | 307.01 ± 5.86 | 297.78 ± 4.53 |
| Iron (ppm) | 40.6b ± 2.19 | 69.48a ± 1.21 |
| Zinc (ppm) | 22.5b ± 0.43 | 30.15a ± 0.94 |
| Copper (ppm) | 5.33b ± 0.21 | 7.88a ± 0.23 |
| Cholesterol (mg/100g) | 65.23a ± 3.27 | 46.79b ± 2.63 |
| Dietary fiber (%) | 0.49b ± 0.04 | 4.83a ± 0.10 |
Means with different superscripts in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05)
The cholesterol content of restructured spent hen meat slices with blend C was significantly lower (P < 0.05), whereas the total dietary fiber content was significantly higher (P < 0.05) as compared to the control. It might be due to the replacement of meat with TSP, barley flour, oat meal, potato, spices and condiments, which do not contain cholesterol and high in fiber content. Dietary fiber sources, oat, soybean etc. possess cholesterol-lowering activity (Ellegard and Anderson, 2007; Cho et al., 2008). Kumar (2013) also reported a significant increase (P < 0.05) in the dietary fiber of functional restructured chicken meat rolls incorporated with 10% barley flour.
The present study revealed that restructured spent hen meat slices prepared with blend C [3% potato (boiled and mashed), 5% texturized soy protein (1:1 hydration, w/w), 0.4% whey protein concentrate (1:1 hydration, w/w), 3% oat meal (1:1 hydration, w/w), and 7% barley flour (1:1 hydration, w/w)] was the most acceptable on the basis of physico-chemical properties, sensory evaluation, texture profile and colour values. It had significantly higher dietary fiber, iron, copper, zinc contents and low cholesterol content as compared to the control. Restructured spent hen meat slices prepared with blend C was adopted as functional restructured spent hen meat slices. It can be concluded from the present study that spent hen meat can be converted into a high quality and healthy functional restructured spent hen meat slices.
Acknowledgements The authors are highly thankful to the Director, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar for providing the required facilities to carry out the research work and also wish to acknowledge the kind gift of whey protein concentrate from Mahan Protein Limited, New Delhi for use in the present study. The financial assistance provided by Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi in the form of Senior Research Fellowship to the corresponding author for PhD is gratefully acknowledged.
Restructured spent hen meat slices
