Effects of Potato Powder and Starch on the Pasting, Rheological, and Thermal Properties of Dough

Abstract

Potatoes are known to have great health benefits. In this study, the effects of different contents (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30%) of potato powder and starch on the pasting, rheological, and thermal properties of dough were studied. With increasing potato starch content, the pasting parameters, freezable water, and water activity of dough increased, while the elastic and viscous moduli and the semi-bound water of dough decreased. In addition, with increasing potato powder content, the pasting parameters, freezable water, and water activity of dough decreased, while the elastic and viscous moduli and the semi-bound water of dough increased. The results presented herein provide a good reference for the use of potato as a staple food.

Introduction

Potato is the fourth most common food crop after wheat, rice, and corn, and is particularly popular in Europe and America, and is the top vegetable crop in China. China produces the greatest amount of potatoes, accounting for one-fourth of global production, and is also the largest potato-consuming country. However, the consumption of processed potato per capita is far lower than that in Europe and America. It is expected that more than half of China's potato production will be consumed as a staple food by 2020 (Yang et al., 2017). Potatoes contain starch, protein, vitamins, trace elements, and other essential nutrients, as well as enzymes, polyphenolic compounds, and other active substances that inhibit tumor growth and prevent other diseases. Potato can reduce fat intake, improve blood lipids and decrease blood pressure (Ezekiel et al., 2013; Tsang et al., 2018; Furrer et al., 2017). Potatoes are easily processed and have great taste, making them widely popular in the food industry. Potatoes can be sold directly to consumers or be used as raw materials to produce other products, including various snacks, potato starch, and potato powder. Potato starch is the main component of potato dry matter and is the main form of storage for the internal energy source of a potato. Potato starch is primarily composed of amylopectin and amylose, with amylopectin accounting for approximately 80% of the total. Compared to other cereal starches, potato starch is composed of large granules and exhibits high viscosity, water absorption, easy swelling, and good gelatinization characteristics (Ezekiel et al., 2013). Potato starch has a mild taste without a typical cereal flavors, and is commonly used as a thickener, emulsifier, filler, adhesive, and auxiliary raw materials in the food industry (Saeedyzadeh et al., 2018; Altemimi, 2018; Li et al., 2017). Potato powder is a fine granule or patch-like product obtained by peeling, cooking, and mashing, followed by dehydration and drying, and includes all potato dry matter (Tan et al., 2019). Potato powder can be used to make cookies (Sreemoyee et al., 2015), steamed bread (Liu et al., 2016; Cao et al., 2019), regular bread (Iancu, 2015), staple foods, and other foodstuffs (Zhao et al., 2017).

Noodles are a common traditional food in many countries. Due to their simple manufacturing process, various flavors, high nutritional value, and convenience, noodles are popular in many countries (Zhang and Ma, 2016). Noodles made from potato and wheat flour could improve diets and promote the application of potatoes as a staple food. Only a few studies on potato noodles have been reported to date, and most have focused on the effects of potato on noodle quality. For example, Xu et al. (2017a) studied the effects of different types of potato powder on the potato noodle quality and found that crude fiber, vitamin, and mineral contents in potato noodles were increased. Sheng et al. (2017) studied the effects of potato powder obtained from different processes on the noodle quality, with maximum contents of 35% raw potato powder and 20% cooked potato powder. Wang et al. (2016) studied the use of extrusion in producing noodles with a mixture of potato powder and rice flour, showing that when the ratio of potato powder to rice flour was 6:4, the quality of extruded potato noodles was acceptable. Sandhu et al. (2010) studied the relationship between the gelatinization characteristics of potato starch and the noodle quality, demonstrating that using potato starch results in higher cooking loss, but can make the noodles more transparent and smoother.

Noodle quality is directly associated with dough pasting properties, as well as its rheological and thermal properties (Sandhu et al., 2010; Kaur et al., 2015; Gulia and Khatkar, 2013). The effects of potato content on the properties of dough for preparing potato noodles have rarely been studied, and mechanistic studies on the effects of potato content on noodle quality are lacking. In this study, the effects of potato powder and starch on the pasting, rheological, and thermal properties of dough were examined. The results presented herein can provide a proper reference for determining the mechanisms by which potato powder and starch affect noodle quality, and for the use of potatoes as a staple food.

Materials and Methods

Materials    Xiangxue high-gluten flour was purchased from Cofco Flour Marketing Management (Beijing) Co., Ltd, China. Xuehua potato powder and starch were purchased from Inner Mongolia Fuguang Food Co., Ltd, China.

Preparation of Dough    An electronic balance was used to weigh the high-gluten flour and different amounts of potato powder or starch were added to a final mixed flour mass of 300 g. Thus, the potato powder or starch contents were 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, or 30% in the mixed flour. Subsequently, forty percent water by mass of mixed flour was added and fully mixed with the mixed flour. A dough mixer (HM502, Kesun, Guangdong, China) was used for mixing at 60 rpm for 1 min, 90 rpm for 1 min, and 120 rpm for 8 min to obtain a uniformly mixed dough. The dough was placed in sealed bags and allowed to rise for 30 min.

Pasting Properties of Dough    A precise electronic balance was used to weigh 3 g of mixed flour with different potato powder or starch contents. The samples were added to a sample container containing 25 mL of water, and a rapid viscosity analyzer (TecMaster, Perten, Hägersten, Sweden) was used to measure the pasting properties. Fig. 1 shows the standard GB/T 24853-2010 test procedure for measuring pasting properties. Each sample was measured in triplicate. Pasting properties, including peak viscosity, trough viscosity, final viscosity, setback value, breakdown value, peak time, and pasting temperature were determined.

Fig. 1.

Pasting test procedure

Rheological Properties of Dough    A rotary rheometer (HAAKE MARS III, Thermofisher, Massachusetts, USA) was used for the evaluation of rheological properties. A suitable amount of dough was placed on a test plate with a diameter of 20 mm, and the plate spacing was adjusted to 2 mm. Excess dough was removed and the dough was allowed to rest for 5 min to release excess stress. A frequency sweep was performed on the dough to measure changes in the elastic modulus, G′, viscous modulus, G″, and loss tangent, Tan δ. Each sample was measured in triplicate. The settings for the test were as follows: 25 °C, 0.1% strain, and 0.1–10 Hz. SPSS 22.0 (IBM, New York, USA) software was used to perform non-linear regression of the data, and a fitted curve was constructed based on the power law model. The curve equations are as follows:   

  

Where G′ is the elastic modulus (Pa), G″ is the viscous modulus (Pa), K′ and K″ are consistency indices (Pa·sⁿ), f is the frequency (Hz), and n′ and n″ are superindices.

Thermal Properties of Dough    A differential scanning calorimeter (Q20, TA, New Castle, USA) was used to measure the thermal properties of dough. A precise electronic balance was used to weigh 5–10 mg of the dough. Samples were placed in aluminum trays and sealed, while sealed empty aluminum trays were used as controls, and the enthalpy and endothermic peak temperature of the sample during water crystallization in dough were measured. Each sample was measured in triplicate. The test settings were as follows: temperature was decreased from 25 °C to −40 °C at 5 °C/min, then held for 5 min before raising the temperature to 30 °C at 5 °C/min. A water activity meter (AquaLab 4TE, Meter, Pullman, USA) was used to measure changes of free water in the dough at 25 °C. Each sample was measured in triplicate.

Data Analysis    SPSS 22.0 software was used to analyze the obtained data. Mean values and standard deviations were calculated, and significant differences between the mean values were determined by analysis with the software.

Results and Discussion

Effects on Dough Pasting Properties    Table 1 shows that the dough pasting property parameters such as peak viscosity, trough viscosity, final viscosity, breakdown, and setback increased with increasing potato starch content. The pasting properties of dough are related to the starch and amylose contents and the swelling power of starch (Singh et al., 2004). As the starch content increases, the gluten protein content decreases in the dough and the gluten network structure is affected. Thus, the added starch cannot be surrounded by the gluten network structure, and the degree of starch water absorption and degree of starch gelatinization increased. The amylose content in potato starch is lower than that in wheat starch (Zaidul et al., 2007), and the peak viscosity, trough viscosity, and breakdown value exhibit negative correlation with the amylose content (Mais and Bernnan, 2008). The pasting properties of starch are related to the granules size, structure, and morphology of the starch (Huang and Lai, 2010). Potato starch is composed of large granules, exhibits high viscosity, and has good gelatinization characteristics (Ezekiel et al., 2013). In addition, the phosphorus in potato starch can affects some pasting parameters such as the peak viscosity (Zaidul et al., 2007). Therefore, the addition of potato starch increases the pasting property parameters. Potato starch exhibits a stronger gelling ability than wheat flour, which causes the dough setback value to increase (Lockwood et al., 2008).

Table 1. Pasting properties of dough with potato starch

Amount of added potato starch	Peak viscosity (mPa · s)	Peak time (min)	Trough viscosity (mPa · s)	Final viscosity (mPa · s)	Breakdown (mPa · s)	Setback (mPa · s)	Pasting temperature (°C)
0	1607.0±3.6e	6.13±0.01a	1151.0±8.6f	2246.3±3.1g	455.6±8.9b	1095.0±10.4e	78.2±0.4a
5%	1729.3±31.5e	6.10±0.08a	1260.6±13.3e	2427.3±51.5f	468.6±18.7b	1166.6±38.8d	70.6±0.5b
10%	1856.3±36.4d	6.15±0.04a	1383.3±26.6d	2628.3±31.3e	473.0±11.5b	1245.0±5.0c	70.3±0.3b
15%	1974.0±118.4cd	6.15±0.08a	1511.6±103.3c	2811.6±141.0d	478.3±15.1b	1300.0±37.7bc	70.5±0.3b
20%	2076.3±11.2c	6.15±0.04a	1616.0±8.8c	2974.0±21.1c	484.4±5.5b	1358.0±14.9b	70.6±0.4b
25%	2205.6±35.1b	6.06±0.13a	1740.3±27.0b	3170.6±52.8b	492.1±10.5b	1430.3±34.5a	70.7±0.6b
30%	2382.6±130.2a	6.04±0.10a	1883.3±114.8a	3362.6±55.7a	499.3±16.2a	1479.3±63.3a	70.6±0.4b

Different alphabets at the top right of numbers in the same column means that differences are significant (P < 0.05). Values are the means of three replicates (means ± standard deviation)

Table 2 shows that the dough pasting property parameters such as peak viscosity, trough viscosity, final viscosity, breakdown, and setback decreased with increasing potato powder content. Potato powder contains proteins, vitamins, and other non-starch substances that can absorb water and prevent starch from absorbing water, expanding and gelatinizing (Zhang et al., 2018). Addition of potato powder dilutes the gluten and weakens the starch-gluten and gluten network. Some of the starch in potato powder is gelatinized starch, which cannot gelatinize again upon heating (Nawaz et al., 2019). Moreover, the pasting properties of potatoes are related to the structure and morphology of potato starch (Singh et al., 2018). Potato powder is a fine granular or patch-like product obtained by peeling, cooking, and mashing, followed by dehydration and drying, and includes all potato dry matter. The structure and morphology of starch in potato powder are different from that of potato starch (Tan et al., 2019). Therefore, the pasting property parameters decreased at higher potato powder contents. The decrease in setback and breakdown values indicate that the dough exhibits a weaker gelling capacity and cannot easily form a stable gel structure at lower temperatures.

Table 2. Pasting properties of dough with potato powder

Amount of added potato powder	Peak viscosity (mPa · s)	Peak time (min)	Trough viscosity (mPa · s)	Final viscosity (mPa · s)	Breakdown (mPa · s)	Setback (mPa · s)	Pasting temperature (°C)
0	1607.0±3.6a	6.13±0.01a	1151.0±8.6a	2246.3±3.1a	455.6±8.9a	1095.0±10.4a	78.2±0.4a
5%	1582.3±42.6a	6.00±0.07b	1130.6±30.0a	2223.6±37.4a	451.6±13.1ab	1093.0±10.1ab	77.9±0.8a
10%	1553.0±96.7ab	5.95±0.04bc	1111.6±60.6ab	2186.6±106.2a	441.3±36.4ab	1075.0±47.1ab	77.2±0.8a
15%	1524.3±53.2ab	5.95±0.04bc	1091.3±44.6ab	2139.6±70.6ab	433.0±9.6ab	1048.3±26.1bc	77.5±0.5a
20%	1480.0±38.7bc	5.87±0.01cd	1059.0±27.7bc	2064.6±54.3bc	421.0±12.5bc	1005.6±26.6c	77.7±0.9a
25%	1401.6±47.9cd	5.82±0.04de	1009.6±39.2cd	1959.6±63.5cd	392.0±8.8cd	950.0±24.3d	77.1±0.1a
30%	1374.6±27.4d	5.76±0.07e	984.6±22.3d	1902.3±42.7d	390.0±6.0d	917.6±20.5d	77.4±0.3a

Effects on Dough Rheological Properties    As shown in Fig. 2, the elastic modulus, G′, and viscous modulus, G″, of the dough decrease with increasing potato starch content, and G′ is greater than G″, indicating that elasticity is dominant. The loss factor, Tan δ, increases as the potato starch content increases. The rheological properties of dough depend on the contents of gluten and starch, and the granular structure of the starch (Li et al., 2014). Addition of potato starch decreases the overall gluten content and more starch is exposed outside the gluten network, preventing protein from absorbing sufficient water to form the gluten network structure. Moreover, starch can combine with gluten protein in wheat flour to form a starch-protein network structure (Xu et al., 2017b), which is not as stable as the protein network structure. Therefore, the addition of potato starch can decrease the viscous and elastic moduli (Cao et al., 2017).

Fig. 2.

Effects of potato starch on dough rheological properties

The fitted curve parameters in Table 3 show that the determination coefficients (R²) were all > 0.9, indicating excellent curve fitting. The differences between n′ and n″ are small, indicating that the sensitivity of the dough to frequency changes is similar after potato starch addition. K′ and K″ decrease with increasing potato starch content, and K′ is higher than K″, which is consist with the results shown in Fig. 2.

Table 3. Fitted curve parameters for rheological properties of dough with potato starch

Amount of added potato starch	K′ (Pa · sn)	n′	R2	K″ (Pa · sn)	n″	R2
0	14809	0.194	0.942	5235	0.153	0.948
5%	13901	0.203	0.957	4958	0.161	0.959
10%	12472	0.225	0.966	4646	0.175	0.951
15%	11704	0.228	0.979	4515	0.178	0.952
20%	11100	0.214	0.978	4273	0.187	0.949
25%	9935	0.234	0.983	4030	0.195	0.948
30%	9198	0.223	0.984	3771	0.203	0.936

As shown in Fig. 3, the elastic modulus, G′, and viscous modulus, G″, of the dough increased with increasing potato powder content, and G′ is greater than G″, indicating that elasticity is dominant. The loss factor, Tan δ, decreases with increasing potato powder content, indicating that dough exhibits more solid-like behavior with increasing potato powder content. The results are largely consistent with results reported by Liu et al. (2016) and Xu et al. (2017b). Some of the starch in potato powder is gelatinized starch with strong water absorption capabilities (Nawaz et al., 2019). These gelatinized starches can produce a paste and form a colloid-like substance, increasing the elastic modulus. In addition, some non-starch substances, such as proteins, lipids, and fibers in potato powder may cross-link with wheat flour and affect the dough viscoelasticity (Fu et al., 2016).

Fig. 3.

Effects of potato powder on dough rheological properties

The fitted curve parameters listed in Table 4 show that the R² values are all > 0.9, indicating good curve fits. The differences between n′ and n″ are small, indicating that the sensitivity of the dough to frequency changes is similar after potato powder addition. K′ and K″ increase with increasing potato powder content, and K′ is higher than K″, which is consist with the results shown in Fig. 3.

Table 4. Fitted curve parameters for rheological properties of dough with potato powder

Amount of added potato powder	K′ (Pa · sn)	n′	R2	K″ (Pa · sn)	n″	R2
0	14809	0.194	0.942	5235	0.153	0.948
5%	15399	0.195	0.924	5449	0.148	0.963
10%	16183	0.184	0.909	5688	0.142	0.957
15%	17346	0.176	0.913	6062	0.133	0.980
20%	18829	0.151	0.945	6441	0.120	0.993
25%	19982	0.140	0.916	7008	0.102	0.993
30%	20604	0.143	0.943	7219	0.101	0.995

Effects on Dough Thermal Properties    Table 5 indicates that the enthalpy and the amount of total freezable water in dough increased with increasing potato starch content. The endothermic peak temperature increases, indicating that the amount of semi-bound water in the freezable water decreases. In addition, the water activity increases, indicating that the free water content in the dough increases (Liu et al., 2015). Compared to wheat starch, the molecular chains in potato starch have a lower polymerization degree and undergo stronger water absorption and greater expansion (Atrous et al., 2017). The addition of potato starch dilutes the gluten protein and the binding affinity of starch and water is weaker than that of gluten and water, so more water in the dough exists as free water. Therefore, the addition of potato starch increases the total freezable water and free water, but decreases the semi-bound water content.

Table 5. Thermal properties and water activity of dough with potato starch

Amount of added potato starch	Enthalpy (J/g)	Peak temperature (°C)	Water activity
0	32.37±1.36e	−3.26±0.10a	0.9762±0.0006e
5%	33.43±1.32de	−3.03±0.11b	0.9770±0.0004de
10%	34.67±1.89d	−2.76±0.14c	0.9777±0.0006cd
15%	36.38±1.53c	−2.50±0.07d	0.9781±0.0003c
20%	37.15±1.34bc	−2.27±0.16e	0.9789±0.0005b
25%	38.34±1.66ab	−1.96±0.13f	0.9797±0.0004ab
30%	39.08±1.47a	−1.63±0.09g	0.9800±0.0010a

Table 6 indicates that the enthalpy decreases and the total freezable water in the dough decreases with increasing potato powder content. The endothermic peak temperature decreases, indicating that the semi-bound water in freezable water increases. The water activity decreases, indicating that the free water content in dough decreases (Liu et al., 2015). During potato powder production, the starch is severely damaged, and a large number of hydrophilic substances are exposed, which tends to bind with water (Tan et al., 2019). A significant amount of the starch in potato powder is gelatinized, and the structure of gelatinized starch is relatively loose. Starch molecular chains easily break away from the constraints of starch granules, increasing the overall water binding capacity (Sheng et al., 2017). In addition, some non-starch substances, such as proteins and dietary fibers in potato powder, affect the thermal properties of dough. Dietary fibers contain numerous hydrophilic substances and have strong water binding capacity (Macagnan et al., 2016). Therefore, potato powder addition increases the semi-bound water content and decreases the free water content.

Table 6. Thermal properties and water activity of dough with potato powder

Amount of added potato powder	Enthalpy (J/g)	Peak temperature (°C)	Water activity
0	32.37±1.36a	−3.26±0.10e	0.9762±0.0006a
5%	30.7±1.60a	−3.32±0.16e	0.9740±0.0002a
10%	28.15±2.15b	−3.52±0.09de	0.9705±0.0015b
15%	26.17±1.40b	−3.75±0.12d	0.9665±0.0013c
20%	24.0±1.13c	−4.13±0.14c	0.9621±0.0022d
25%	21.75±1.05d	−4.47±0.13b	0.9586±0.0016e
30%	19.98±1.50d	−4.81±0.27a	0.9532±0.0005f

Conclusions

The effects of potato powder and starch on dough properties were studied by examining dough pasting, rheological, and thermal properties. Addition of potato starch increased the peak viscosity, trough viscosity, setback value, and breakdown value of the dough, decreased the elastic and viscous moduli, increased the freezable water and free water content, and decreased the semi-bound water content in the dough. Addition of potato powder decreased the peak viscosity, trough viscosity, setback value, and breakdown value of dough, increased the elastic and viscous moduli, decreased the freezable water and free water content, and increased the semi-bound water content of the dough.

Acknowledgements    The research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51975006); and the General Project of Science and Technology of Beijing Municipal Education Commission (KM201810011003).

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