The Australopithecus afarensis fossil skeleton “Lucy” and the Laetoli fossil footprint trails are the two most direct evidences to prove that the early hominins were bipedal. Recently, there have been attempts to reconstruct bipedal locomotion of the A. afarensis based on biomechanical analyses of the fossil skeleton and footprints. This article provides an overview of biomechanical methodologies used in reconstruction, namely, estimation of walking velocity using the theory of dynamic similarity and biomechanical simulation of bipedal locomotion based on musculoskeletal models. The results of the reconstructions are then examined, and future challenges for biomechanical reconstruction of early hominin locomotion are discussed.

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We examined 396 talar joint facets of the calcaneus and talus of early-modern human remains from Kumejima, Okinawa to classify into 4 types of articular facet (Continuous Type/Demarcated Type/Separate Type/No Anterior facet Type); using the standard by Tanaka et al. (2004a). Significant correlations between right and left facet types were recognized. The frequency of the demarcated type was significantly higher in males, while that of the continuous type was higher in females. The respective appearances of the continuous type and smooth type, demarcated type and angular type, no-anterior facet type and no-anterior facet type of the calcaneus and talus were correlated. The appearance of the calcanean separate facet type corresponded to those of the angular type and grooved type in the talus. Analysis of variance showed that there were significant differences in length between the anterior and middle talar articular facets of the calcaneus among the continuous, demarcated and separate types. The demarcated type had a significantly longer articular surface length (AB) than the continuous type. The separate facet type showed a significantly deeper depth (C) than the continuous type. The separate facet type had a significantly higher depth index (C/AB) than the consecutive models. The Kumejima Island and central Kyushu groups of the modern period showed a high frequency of calcanean separate facet type among Japanese Islanders, while prehistoric and historic East Japanese showed rather lower frequencies.

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One of unsolved main problems in the study on the origin of Japanese is the transition from the Jomon people to the Yayoi people, especially the early stage of immigration in northern Kyushu. The main difficulty to solve this problem has been the lack of skeletal materials that belong to the time between the final Jomon and the early Yayoi Periods. Therefore, we know few details of the transition period. It is important, however, to know who carried out a drastic change of the Yayoi culture during this transitional period, i.e. the native Jomon people or the immigrant people. In a series of papers (Nakahashi and Iizuka, 1998; Iizuka and Nakahashi, 2002), we examined the interpretation which views the immigrant people as mainly responsible for the formation of the Yayoi society in northern Kyushu by introducing population genetic models. Recently, results of new AMS C14 dating show that the beginning of the Yayoi Period may go back to the 1000 B.C.. Then the length of the transition period (from the beginning of the Yayoi Period to the middle Yayoi Period) may be much longer than the values that we used in the previous studies (200~300 years). In this paper, we reconsider the problem using newly proposed values of the length of the transition period (at most 800 years). It is shown that the longer the length of the transition period, the more the view is compatible with results from anthropological and archeological studies. This implies that the immigrant people were mainly responsible for the drastic cultural change during the transitional period.

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Concerning the prehistoric dispersals of Austronesian language groups into the Pacific, the so-called ‘Out of Taiwan’ hypothesis or ‘Express Train to Polynesia’ (ETP) hypothesis has been close to be established among linguistics and archaeology. In the present paper is a test to assess the hypothesis preliminary tried on the basis of craniometric comparisons of the prehistoric-Taiwan Kenting-liao female skeleton with prehistoric female cranial series from the Pacific area. It is proved that the Kenting-liao cranium is in a range of the variation of the Pacific series, and that a more detailed analysis should be carried out using a bigger battery of comparative materials in the near future.

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The Bunun tribe is one of the aboriginal Taiwanese populations living in the central mountain area of Taiwan. In this study, we analyzed the sequence variability of hypervariable region I and II of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in order to investigate the relationships between modern and historical Bunun populations. mtDNA sequences were retrieved from 25 of 34 samples that were obtained from the historical Bunun skeletal remains stored in National Taiwan University. In combination with the mtDNA data of 8 extant Taiwan aboriginal populations, we carried out phylogenetic analysis based on haplogroup frequency data. The results show that the genetic structure of the historical Bunun population is a complex matriline and that these samples share the same haplogroup with the extant Bunun population. Analysis of the genetic composition of the aboriginal populations also reveals an important ethnic heterogeneity of the present aboriginal Taiwanese. Analysis of genetic distances based on haplogroup frequencies revealed 2 distinct clusters composed of northern and central mountain groups (Atayal, Saistat, and Bunun) and east coast and southern mountain groups (Paiwan, Rukai, Amis, and Yami). The mtDNA haplogroups in the Taiwan aboriginal populations were found to be different from those in the Chinese and Taiwan-Han population; therefore, these Taiwan aboriginal haplogroups might have stemmed from the gene pool of the initial late Pleistocene settlers. Genetic diversity among the aboriginal populations may be attributed to the prolonged isolation and random genetic drift after the single introduction of all mtDNA haplogroups into Taiwan. Our experiments also indicate the availability of the past skeletal remains for verifying the hypotheses formulated on the basis of genetic data derived from the present populations.

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The subsistence history of ancient and aboriginal Taiwanese was investigated by isotopic analysis on human skeletal collection which stores at the College of Medicine, National Taiwan University. Nineteen samples of Bunun population and 21 samples from 8 prehistoric sites were analyzed and all Bunun and 7 prehistoric remains produced carbon and nitrogen isotopic ratios in bone collagen. Nitrogen isotopic ration in Bunun skeletons showed higher values, suggesting consumption of some amount of inland-water fish as a part of their protein source, although the ethnographers had reported some Bunun villagers had exploited only little or no fish. On the other hand, materials from prehistoric sites showed much wider variability. These suggested the subsistence change could be very drastic in time and space in Taiwan.

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The trace of ritual tooth extraction in the human skeletal remains stored in the National Taiwan University was examined. The bilateral tooth extraction which mainly focused on the canines and lateral incisors of upper jaw was observed in 16 of 17 prehistoric age human bones excavated from the Kenting-liao site located in the southernmost end of Taiwan. Moreover, in the Bunun tribe, among 46 observed skulls, the canines and lateral incisors of upper jaw were the most frequently bilaterally extracted at 28 skulls, and the bilateral tooth extraction of upper lateral incisors in 72 of 161 Tayal tribe was also observed.

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Elementary and secondary school students have no means to fully understand that our growth period is long so that we can acquire knowledge. In order to explain the evolutionary meaning of the lengthy period of education to pupils, I compare the elements of education to the human growth curves. The growth curve of the brain is rapid in the earliest stage, which corresponds to hoping or dreaming; the growth curve of the reproductive organs is rapid in the latest stage, which corresponds to claiming or pretending; the growth curve of the general physique is rapid in the earlier and later stages but almost horizontal in the middle stage, which corresponds to facts or reality. In the juvenile and early adolescent stage, teenagers, whose body is not yet completely developed, naturally respect full-grown adult teachers, and teachers easily control the youngsters. The gap between the growth curves of the brain and the general physique must be securely filled with intellectual education. In addition, the gap between the growth curves of the general physique and the reproductive organs must be properly filled with moral education. Then, the individual’s personal development will be fully realized. Biological anthropologists should teach school children and the general public why, when and how our unique life-history was acquired in the course of human evolution.

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School textbooks are compiled in accordance with the Courses of Study and their guidebooks. A Course of Study comprises three parts: the objective, the content and how to deal with the content. A guidebook for the Course of Study gives more concrete explanations. Textbook publishers have their textbooks inspected by the Textbook Authorization Research Council summoned by the MEXT. The council scrutinizes the content of textbooks as well as their academic correctness. It is also expected to give comments mainly on necessary changes. The publishers are required to make alternations according to these comments. After they have their revised textbooks inspected again by the MEXT, they can publish them as authorized ones.

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Presently, the Ministry of Education and Technology is considering a reform of the Course of Study. In order to achieve an improvement, it is important to take into account the problems raised by the existing Course of Study. In the existing Course of Study, the time allocated to science is insufficient, and DNA is not studied. Students of “Biology I B” cannot study evolution, metabolism, and ecology. These can be studied only in “Biology II”. Once, the course called “Biology I A”, provided a wide curriculum on human biology, but only a few students opted for this course. The reasons of the failure are the fact that the content was unsatisfactory, and was not given enough importance on entrance examinations. However, students are interested in understanding humans as themselves, and the first important step is understanding the meaning of diversity and universality of life. It is also important to understand where humankind stands in nature. For the next Course of Study, human biology will remain important. For that, it is necessary to make use of the anthropological research as teaching materials.

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A survey was conducted to examine how middle school students understand evolution in biology. As a result, it became clear that the students could not distinguish evolution from metamorphosis and that they take evolution as a progress. Middle school students misunderstand the phenomena of biological evolution, which seems to prevent them from correct biological understanding. For the betterment of their understanding, special lessons on biological evolution covering topics of physical anthropology were given to those students. The comparison between the pre-teaching and after-teaching respondents showed improvements in their understanding. This survey substantiated the merits of teaching physical anthropology in the secondary education.

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Through a questionnaire given to junior and senior high school students after laboratory classes on anthropological themes, it became clear that these themes could fulfill the students’ intellectual curiosities according to their development, and could have educational effectiveness. This proves that science education in schools has a significant demand for studying physical anthropology. At the same time, a questionnaire given to junior high school teachers shows that it is important to supply specimens as education tools and to enrich the teachers’ knowledge in this field, in order to achieve improved physical anthropology lessons.

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Several descriptions on the human origin and other related topics in natural anthropology provided by high school biology textbooks made after 1952 were examined. When we verified whether the textbook revisions picked up new information made public by the related academic societies, each revision of the Guideline for the Course of Study did not always seem to reflect the relevant knowledge of the new scientific findings. After the latest two revisions of the course of study,the descriptions of fundamental matters seem to have been substantiated. It is difficult to find appropriate materials and an adequate level of knowledge-acquisition for the understanding of the origin of human being and its evolution, as well as to know the real nature of the human being. However, it is very important to continually look for a better way of description, as a composite scientific areas.

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We examined senior high school textbooks of history (Japanese history and World history) certified by the Ministry of Education and Science, in order of their published dates. The examined textbooks, two types of World history and Japanese history published and used from 1959 to 2007, are all limited to one publisher, Yamakawa Shuppansha. The items examined in each textbook are the number of pages, words, footnotes and the occupied area of figures and plates in the texts presenting the human evolution; human evolution in World history, and from where and when people came to the Japanese Archipelago in the Japanese history. The preliminary reports of this examination are illustrated in 8 graphs and 2 word lists. In the World history textbooks, the description of human evolution was reduced after the renovation of the guideline of teaching and learning in senior high school (Course of Study) in 1999. On the other hand, in the textbooks of Japanese history, the description of the “origin of Japanese people” was not reduced, but the descriptions of the first inhabitants and Paleolithic culture were changed to those of epi-Neolithic Yayoi culture and the origin of Japanese indigenous nation (Wa or Yamato). The Anthropological Society of Nippon positively proceeds to make new guidebooks and to re-educate teachers and textbook writers of the history subject in senior high schools.

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