With reference to related historical archives and literature, this study conducted research into the history, the designer and the design dimensions of St. Paul′s Church in Macao. The remaining drawing of the facade merely reflects the correlation deduction of each controlling point in its geometric drawing. Through digital analysis, this study has further obtained the ″digitally-derived geometric design″ relations of the five-layer elevation design drawing and number-rounding adjustment of the constructing dimensions: the application of the law of equal-partition in the horizontal direction, the application of the law of upward successive-subtraction in stratification in the vertical direction, and the complicated combination of golden-rectangle controlling designs. The latter two applications are key geometrical features of Baroque Architecture.

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This paper aims to examine the spatial composition of the small attached buildings in Iriki Fumoto, the most well preserved historic settlement of the Goshi (the persons who usually engaged in farming and sometimes worked as warriors in the Edo period) in Kagoshima domain, Japan, and to consider one of the historic residential properties from a socio-spatial perspective. Specifically, it deals with the stables and outside bath-well houses, which are expected to reflect their characters as farmers, with regard to the building layouts and design principles. Firstly, the authors investigate the building layout of the Goshi properties in the district to reveal two contrasting areas; the official public architecture of the warrior′s residence and the private architecture of the farmer. Then, they look into the building plans in detail, including stables, and outside bath-well houses. Here, the principle of arrangement of the rooms will be clarified for the existing 15 stables and 13 outside bath-well houses. In addition, the authors also consider the plans of the stables and outside bath-well houses with regard to their size, area of cattle booths and components to reveal the design process and planning characteristics. In conclusion, the results of the above studies will be summarized, referring to the architectural value of these heritage sites.

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In this study, the authors performed field surveys and investigated the formal and technological characteristics of granary buildings in the middle and lower reaches of the Fu River. Their study could help architects understand the regional features of traditional vernacular buildings. Employing field survey and mapping, the authors found that the building styles of traditional granaries are not different from those of traditional residential houses. This type of architecture challenges the restrictions of the ritual system and highlighted structural flexibility and functional priority through the use of beam structure. In the final section of the study, the thermal and wind environments of granary buildings are analyzed using ECOTECT software. The results of the analysis demonstrate that granary buildings can maintain low temperatures and prevent moisture using eco-building techniques, such as ventilative stone ridges, moisture-resistant walls and heat insulation storage rooms. These achievements demonstrate that traditional vernacular buildings, such as granaries, undergo fundamental evolution in architectural form and technology rather than maintaining the original state of a specific historical period.

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This article looks at building tools and the significant evidence for the transition from craftsmanship and the mixing of Chinese and foreign working methods in the early 20th century. Although a number of Western scholars and Chinese researchers have studied traditional Chinese traditional tools, the transformation of tools from their traditional forms to modern ones in China has not been properly investigated. This article provides the first discussion of the introduction of Western tools and machinery and their effects on the building industry in Chinese Treaty Ports in the early 20th century. It highlights how the contemporary Western standards and expectations distorted Western perceptions of Chinese tools, and how European traders promoted Western hand tools and machines in China. It also shows how the Chinese fascination with Western machinery in turn blinded them from appreciating their traditional heritage in the eyes of some Westerners.

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Various efforts are needed to understand the construction principle of wooden architecture in the pre-modern era, as theoretical literature on this topic is lacking. This study shows that wooden construction methods are divided into two categories consisting of piled-up and integrated structures. The primary difference between the two categories is that the former is supported by a structural system weighted by a load from above, whereas the latter involves strengthening of the combination itself. In Korea, the framed system seen in a partially integrated structure is confirmed based on the structure of a piled-up framework. The Sungnyemun Gate is a representative example, and exemplifies piled-up techniques with a structural stability that is grounded by the load. However, the building′s interior is characterized by the active adoption of pass-through columns employed in the integrated structure. Such structural compromise results in great changes. When the authors examine the joining parts of major timber-framed structures like the Sungnyemun Gate, at its completion, it had weak joining connections in the piled-up structure; however, after several repairs, it was strengthened with an integrated structure. This thesis examines a regional peculiarity of the wooden architecture that adopted eclectic styles based on the piled-up structure.

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As the primary architectural design approach before the Modern Movement, architectural composition maintained its global influence on practice and pedagogy due to the wide influence of Beaux-Arts education. Composition was transplanted into China′s architectural education in association with social-political reform in the early 20th century. Changes in the content and principles of composition practice reflected the far-reaching modernization of China′s architectural education. Despite criticism of composition as an irrational design strategy, its evolution is inevitably a documentation of the past and a reinterpretation of the present. This paper begins with a literature review of composition and then concentrates on its evolution in China′s architectural education, especially in the case of the architecture department of Nanjing Institute of Technology. By analyzing the work of students from Nanjing Institute of Technology, this paper assumes that the context of nationalism accelerated the formation of the characteristics of China′s architectural education. Finally, the paper concludes that genius and creativity permeated the entire procedure of modernization, which was doubtless beyond a simple repetition of the Western process.

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Zaha Hadid′s design of the DDP (2007-13) in Seoul has been criticized for its seeming disinterest in the site′s sense of place. The most consistent critic against the design is H-Sang Seung (b. 1952), one of the participants in the 2007 competition for the project. For Seung, careful consideration of ″the record and story of our lives…written on the land,″ which was to be theorized under the name ″landscript″ (2009), should have been the starting point of the present DDP. Though very cogent, however, his opinion cannot but encounter a dilemma in the fact that the futuristic DDP will also be established as one layer of the ″landscript″ on the site. In addition, his ″landscript″ theory, partly supported by Heidegger′s concept of place, could be criticized based on criticism of Heidegger. For example, Neil Leach (1998)—after Jean-François Lyotard (1987)—sensed ″a potential violence″ and ″the logic of exclusion″ in the Heideggerian place. In the contemporary context of ″the heterogeneous, open cosmopolis,″ Leach argues, we should pursue ″cosmopolitan architectures″ transcending ″the rigid constraints of the genius loci.″ On the basis of Leach′s argument, this paper aims for a critical re-reading of Seung′s ″landscript,″ revealing his dilemma in the DDP controversy.

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″Esplanade″ is one of the names related to outdoor spaces that Kunio Maekawa (1905–1986) used in his late architectonics design activities. This paper examines how Kunio Maekawa applied the structure of outdoor space in Western Europe to Japanese architecture by studying all esplanades and analyzing the differences between and similarities to his original design, Place du Carrousel. First, he organized outlines of the esplanade, and then analyzed the differences from and similarities with Place du Carrousel. In addition, he compared five different esplanades as objects of study. This made Kunio Maekawa′s technique for an esplanade clear. As a result, he was receptive to composing enclosed spaces that still relate to their surrounding environment. In other words, he has substituted Western plazas in Japan by planning esplanades from the viewpoint of city planning.

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This paper takes the British concession in Tianjin as an example, trying to clarify the historical and cultural values of the first parks. The first park, Victoria Park, was built as a memorial facility. It received many visitors including Chinese, with numerous outdoor concerts providing the citizens with great enjoyment. Although there were conflicts between the Chinese and British, objectively, it greatly improved Tianjin′s landscape and provided a much healthier environment. The other parks in the British Extra Rural Extension were endowed with specific roles in creating an ideal city with light, air and spaces for recreation. The planning theories behind these parks pushed the modernizing process of Chinese cities. Besides, the parks brought new materials and new styles to Chinese traditional gardens, so they have high historical, cultural and academic value. Therefore, we suggest the government carry out a basic investigation and create a database of modern parks. The value of a park should be evaluated from both an urban planning aspect and the park itself. As for park conservation, the natural landform, spatial structure, visual organization, building, entrance space, wall, pavement, plants and relationship with its surroundings needs to be well evaluated.

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This article examines realism in architecture based on Aldo Rossi′s architectural works and Jacques Rancière′s discourse on realism. Rancière views realism as an artistic capacity that gives impetus to new art rather than as a specific art movement. In addition, he considers realism not only in terms of this role in the history of art but also in terms of its aim even today to discover new aspects of art among art and non-art, that is everyday objects. This view is comparable to the idea of architecture espoused by Aldo Rossi. Rossi discovers the boundary between architecture and non-architecture in the process of searching for the architectural archetype, the hut (cabin). Furthermore, he proposes architecture that diverges from architectural methods, placing high value on his personal viewpoint and expression in architecture. In spite of the negative evaluation of his later architectural works, Rossi′s architecture can be viewed as realism since they connect architecture with ordinary objects that are beyond the level of architecture. This article elaborates why the discourse on realism in architecture and the prospect of Rossi′s architecture are still valid today.

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This article makes extensive use of undated archived sketches and drawings as key primary materials for studying Alvar Aalto′s design process. Expanding on previous work focused solely on Vuoksenniska Church, three of Aalto′s churches from the 1950s are examined here, namely those in Seinäjoki, Vuoksenniska, and Wolfsburg. Aalto′s sketches and drawings are first reviewed and then carefully organized to provide an approximate representation and overview of the design process for each project. A comparison of key sketches in the early stages of the design process for each church shows a noticeable similarity, where the sketches from one project could easily belong to another. While previous writing has already stressed Aalto′s tendency to reuse and repeat design elements, Aalto′s sketches show not only what, but how specific forms and ideas could be reprised from one project to another, and then subsequently varied and modified. Trapezoidal, fan-shaped, and bentwood forms are subsequently identified as Aalto′s basic design elements. The process of reprising and then adjusting and synthesizing these elements establishes a continuity in Aalto′s way to design, and also echoes Aalto′s ability to establish continuity across different scales.

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Architectural identity reflects the characteristics of a country′s people, environment, and society. Owing to recent globalization, the unique architectural identity of countries has faded so that it has become difficult to identify each country′s unique local and regional identity. In particular, traditional houses in Cairo, which are known as Cairene houses, are considered an iconic style of the city′s architectural history. Cairo has a unique local identity as well as spatial quality mainly found in the region. On the other hand, many of the values and qualities of the houses have been disappearing due to western influences. The objectives of this paper are threefold. First, the Egyptian cultural and environmental influences on Egyptian housing designs are discussed. Second, the spatial composition of traditional Cairene courtyard houses is analyzed. Finally, the underlying principles of spatial compositions are extracted to explain the unique spatial characteristics of the houses. Through the analysis, the distinct spatial quality of traditional Cairene courtyard houses in Cairo will be analyzed, revealing their identity and values.

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This paper aims to uncover the architectural meaning¹ of the domestic spaces portrayed in two Korean modern short stories, Yi Sang′s The Wings (1936) and Inho Choe′s Another Man′s Room (1971). By carefully describing Seoul′s unique domestic spaces during two different time periods, a gisaeng² house from the 1930s and a modern apartment unit from the 1970s, the two narratives qualitatively represent unique architectural conditions. In particular, with their detailed descriptions of architectural, material and immaterial elements and how these relate to a woman′s body, the stories produce seductive atmospheres poetically.
In this sense, The Wings and Another Man′s Room show significant architectural meaning, and architectural practitioners and scholars should consider their potential as architectural references. By criticizing the contemporary stylistic and formal obsession in architecture as well as design education, this paper intends to highlight the fundamental meaning of architecture as the creation of emotionally and intellectually charged communicative and harmonious environments, in other words, ″attuned settings for significant human action,″ as they engage narrative forms.³

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A predominant view among Korean art historians and scholars is the employment of transparent methods concerning Western perspective, while opaque methods were employed concerning Eastern oblique. Accordingly, many researchers have reached dichotomous conclusions on the corresponding use of perspective. This study, however, is an attempt to rethink such dichotomous conclusions that rely on the said views through the showcasing of interesting instances where, using the terms of Nelson Goodman, perspective enhanced both the depictive and exemplificational qualities of the architectural drawings of the late Joseon Period. During this period, it appears that the Western perspectival conventions gradually permeated Joseon culture and society including the commencement of their employment in art and architecture; however, the Eastern oblique conventions remained the dominant methods of artists and architects regarding their building representations. They noticed that, over time, perspective was used not only for depicting the actual appearance of a building, but also for exemplifying its significance. Therefore, this study examines the visual qualities and symbolic significance of the architectural drawings of the Hwaseong-sungyeok Uigwe and the Jeongni Uigwe, published in the late Joseon Period, and then explains the exemplificational role of perspective used in these two uigwes.

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The Seonjamdan altar of the Joseon Dynasty is the only remaining medium sacrifice-grade altar in Seoul. This study investigates the characteristics of the original altar, and explores changes in the Seonjamdan area in addition to historical conservation efforts. The construction of Seonjamdan in a northeastern region outside the capital city was an attempt by Joseon to fully comply with an exemplary Chinese tradition. The Seonjamdan altar was erected twice during the Joseon Dynasty: the first was built during the founding of the dynasty and its historical remains have recently been unearthed, and its second incarnation was in the 18th century and remained active until the country was liberated from Japanese rule. After the liberation, however, Seonjamdan served different purposes and was damaged through urban development and the invasion of urban infrastructure. As a result, the historical remains of the latter Seonjamdan, which was retained until the colonial era, completely lost their integrity and authenticity. In spite of its physical destruction and regardless of its authenticity, various measures have been taken in the Seonjamdan area for the protection and preservation of its intangible value.

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This paper deals with the plans of a paper money factory built in Tokyo in 1876, and considers the development of the architectural practice of one of the prominent Oyatoi engineers, Thomas Waters. The project of the paper money factory, which highlights the prominent brick-made western architecture in the early Meiji period, was thought to have originally been designed by T. Waters and then succeeded by Charles Boinville, although the detail of this has until now remained unclear. Other than the floor plans and elevation with the signature of T. Waters, the author has found some plans of the paper money factory, and as a result can clarify the detailed process of the project. In addition, the author makes use of the various plans of the paper money factory and has made a restored CAD copy of the factory in order to analyze the particulars of T. Waters′ plans. Further to this, it is compared with the plans of another project connected to him, thus T. Waters′ significant influence is considered as to the secure control of goods and labor circulation.

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What was the process of decision-making when hiyokechi were established and substitute land provided in Edo? This study aims to clarify the shogun′s logic in considering the urban planning of Edo, which occurred through the confiscation of land and transfer of substitute land. This paper has two foci: the actual conditions and distribution of the substitute lands, and the process of how these lands were allocated. The results of the study arrive at two conclusions: 1) Substitute land was based on the bashogara, which was the grade of land in the town; 2) Edo expanded through this process of redistributing land through substitute land.

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This study suggests a participatory living village recognized by residents, and examines the characteristics of such a village for the purpose of the effective execution of a living zone plan. The living zone plan is based on a spatial unit, and is categorized as being in the intermediate stage between an urban master plan and an urban management plan. As an administrative division, the present minimum unit of a living zone was designated based on the population and managerial efficiency of the zone; this causes many difficulties in understanding residencies and residents. In this regard, in this study, tests are conducted on residents′ village recognition in consideration of different physical types of residential areas, with the aim of generating the boundary, scale, and area characteristics of a recognized village before suggesting the designation of a living village.

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This research attempts to examine the issue of housing purchase decisions in urban China based on an online questionnaire survey. Unlike the previous research mainly concentrating on tenure choice, specific selection of a house, etc., this study focuses on the starting stage of a consumption decision, which identifies the demand. The analysis shows that the housing purchase decision is highly related to consumers′ social-economic conditions, with ″fixed income″, ″for children′s education″, ″solid credit″, ″a forthcoming child″, ″getting married″ ranking as the top five important factors.
The study further investigates the specific impact of the explanatory factors on the upgrading of house owning states. With the great change of socio-economic conditions and especially for the highly educated group in Chengdu, traditional Chinese family values such as living with immediate family have a significantly different impact on the decision-making process for 1st and 2nd time homebuyers. This study provides some new observations for the specific target of the high education cohort which has gained more and more attention recently in the knowledge economy, such as that they prefer independence when buying their 1st house while seeking family gathering for their 2nd house. This helps deepen the authors′ understanding of the homeownership status and will have a practical significance for policymakers and practitioners.

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The aim of this study is to identify key performance indicators as well as the correlations among these indicators to develop a maintenance and repair cost estimation model for educational buildings based on actual payment records. The importance of financial estimation for facility management systems has increased. Especially, the estimation of maintenance and repair costs is essential to facility management for educational buildings considering the long-life cycle of a building. However, data regarding facility management is still limited. This study adopts payment records related to maintenance and repair work from educational institutions to develop a quantitative approach. Statistical analyses and a multiple regression analysis are conducted to examine the record and generate a cost estimation model. The findings and results of this study provide a guide for maintenance and repair cost estimation of integrated facility management and could be used as a guideline for budgeting for school maintenance.

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University facilities have significant effects on education and research and should be systematically maintained and managed. The Performance Indicator (PI) implicitly discloses the range of work scope and helps facility managers to achieve the goals and objectives of an organization. Much has been said about the importance of facility management (FM), however, there is no specific standard or guideline pertaining to FM services for campus facilities in Korea.
Therefore, the main objective of this research is to provide facility managers with rigidly selected PIs for improving the quality of FM service of campus facilities. PIs are collected through intensive analysis of primary literature related to FM services and educational facilities. The 44 preselected PIs fell into four areas as classified in the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) and the Delphi survey was conducted twice to identify Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). Finally, the importance-performance analysis (IPA) and Kendall′s W are used to analyze the results. The priority on all the 44 PIs was set by considering four sections in the Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA) and finalization of the total of 8 KPIs. This research will serve as a guideline for campus facility managers in making decisions for improving the quality of FM services.

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This study aims to explore the spatial distribution characteristics and spatial reciprocity between industrial parks (IPs) and vocational education parks (VEPs): agglomeration density, functional matching, spatial organization efficiency, as well as space intensive utility. To achieve this objective, IPs and VEPs in urban centers of Jiangsu Province are selected as the objects of the study. First, spatial analysis of thermodynamic diagrams is employed in this study to qualitatively analyze the evolutionary characteristics of the spatial distribution of IPs and VEPs to explore the spatial aggregation characteristics of their clustering, integration, and comprehensive crossover. Second, a horizontal comparison of the data and indexes concerned reveals that areas with high agglomeration and functional matching exhibit a sound spatial reciprocity. Third, this study crystallizes the four structural prototype paradigms formed during the reciprocity evolution between IPs and VEPs; it compares spatial organization efficiency with the agglomeration–core structure ranking first, followed by the circle–core structure. Finally, SPSS is used to analyze the space intensive utility to verify the results of qualitative analysis. The findings can comprehensively explain the regularities of the spatial distribution and reciprocity between IPs and VEPs. The findings can also elucidate the design of regional industrial development and educational programs.

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Most construction project information is stored in unstructured documents, despite its increasing scale and complexity. Owing to ineffective management of construction information, the construction industry is significantly less productive than other industries. Although building information modelling (BIM) is widely employed in the industry, it is difficult to model the project execution phase data owing to its high level of detail. Therefore, this study proposes a framework based on BIM that enables the storing and searching of construction project data through an effective linkage of documents with 3D design objects. The information breakdown structure and spatial breakdown structure, which are the media for integrating construction data with information technology, have been established through the identification and classification of information from unstructured documents from construction sites. The efficiency of the proposed framework in linking documents with 3D objects was validated through a pilot test project and industry survey. The proposed methodology is expected to assist in resolving issues in information management, including enhanced communication, accumulation of know-how, and minimization of disputes, if the utility of the methodology is improved by continuously discovering the best practices at the industrial or organizational level through its extended application.

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Space reflects the culture of its respective society. By analyzing configurational patterns of space, the discipline of spatial analysis attempts to reveal the underlying socio-cultural implication within space. In this paper, however, spatial analysis is criticized as being superficial, as the cultural studies discipline sets out several topics that currently cannot be properly addressed by spatial analysis. One major topic is the Individualism-Collectivism cultural dimension. This study provides insight on how the IND-COL dimension can be addressed through spatial analysis. The IND-COL dimension is reinterpreted as the degree of differentiation between inhabitants and strangers, where the differentiating factor is ′familiarity′ obtained through the differing wayfinding behavior within a spatial configuration. Assuming that an individualist space displays a configurational pattern that hardly differentiates spatial familiarity between inhabitants and strangers, while a collectivist space displays a larger difference between the two groups, spatial familiarity of inhabitants and strangers are quantified as the integration synergy index and ERAM synergy index, respectively. It is then the degree of difference between the two synergy indexes that identifies the IND-COL dimension of a spatial configuration. To verify this conceptual framework, comparative analysis on single-family houses and multi-family apartments, housing types with differing cultural backgrounds, was conducted.

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Based on threshold analysis theory, spatial limiting factors such as mountains, rivers, and roads not only affect the way in which cities spread out, but also play a vital role in shaping the flattened forms of their central districts. This study, based on field investigations of 21 central districts in 13 Asian megacities, seeks out limiting factors that determine the boundaries of urban central districts by quantifying the spatial boundary and distance of the limiting factors. The results suggest a strong correlation between the spatial limiting factors and the urban central district′s form. The limiting elements constrain the size of buildings and population density based on floor area ratio, building density, and development boundaries. Reduction in population and the inconvenience of traffic have decreased urban vitality, leading to delays in the extension of cites′ central districts. It is necessary to fully consider the role of the city′s internal limiting elements in order to reasonably plan the construction of an urban central district.

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Love River has played a critical role in the development of Kaohsiung City. The city recently succeeded in publicizing the bank scenery of Love River, which has now become a tourist destination in Kaohsiung. Love River′s lower reach was chosen as the subject of this study, in order to explore the relation between urban riverbank reconstruction and tourism attractiveness shaping; this study adopted the approach of focus group interview involving planning officials, non-governmental organizations, tourists, industries and local residents; it established Love River Tourism Attractive Elements Questionnaire based on the Kano Model and carried out research in five major dimensions including existing resources, tourism activities, food and accommodation, transportation, and spatial comfort so as to determine the elements that help shape riverbank attractiveness. The results of the investigation were analyzed, and suggestions for riverbank development were provided. The statistical analysis concludes that to enhance the riverbank tourism attractions of Love River, the following priority sequence of development should be followed: (1) proactive development; (2) basic development; (3) considerable development; (4) suspended development. Considering the development priority sequence of the attractive elements of Love River riverbank tourism, this study finally proposed concrete suggestions for Love River′s future development in four parts: spatial form, experience of the four senses, transportation planning, and activity strategy.

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As an alternative method for architectural regeneration, remodeling is drawing keen attention. However, it has turned out that post-occupancy satisfaction is quite low. The main reason for the low satisfaction lies in the remodeling method that does not consider functions demanded by users, but carries it out in an expensive and uniform structure. As for architectural function, multiple functions are required to meet resident′s demands for performance and functional values are apt to conflict with each other, which means when one function improves, others are limited in terms of value. Therefore, user requirements should be well defined to increase their satisfaction while considering functions in conflict. In this respect, the present study proposes a method for user preference evaluation to define functions that a user requires, and thus for maximizing the values of remodeling by improving user satisfaction and residential performance.

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In this study, fragility functions are developed to estimate expected volcanic ash damage to vinyl greenhouses and livestock sheds among common agricultural facilities in South Korea. The fragility functions are derived through the FOSM (first-order second-moment) analytical approach based on the thickness distribution of volcanic ash observed in the 1980 eruption of Mt. Saint Helens in the USA and on agricultural facility codes and specifications in South Korea. In this study, the volcanic ash fragility functions evaluated represent the conditional probability of failure of vinyl greenhouses and livestock sheds over the full range of volcanic ash loads. For the evaluation, 4 types (i.e., automated, single span, tree crop, and double span types) of multi-hazard resisting vinyl greenhouses and 3 types (i.e., standard, coastal, and mountain types) of livestock sheds conventionally utilized in South Korea are considered. All volcanic ash fragility functions estimated in this study are fitted using parameters of the lognormal CDF (cumulative distribution function), and the obtained parameters are compiled into a database for use in the future. The volcanic ash fragility functions developed in this study are intended to be used to evaluate potential risks and losses from volcanic eruptions around the Korean Peninsula.

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This study develops a risk assessment model and evaluates wind risk to predict typhoon-induced damage. A wind risk assessment model was developed using the convolution of a wind hazard model and a wind fragility model, and both models were developed using the Monte Carlo simulation based on probability theory. Wind risk was quantitatively evaluated using the window system and part of the exterior materials installed in low and mid-rise apartments. Wind risk was compared according to regional (namely Busan, Daegu, Daejeon, and Seoul), geomorphological (namely topographic factor and exposure category), and morphological factors of buildings (height, roof tilt angle, and number of housing units) in order to evaluate relative influence. By employing the risk assessment model this study compared 432 wind risks and found that the most influential factor was exposure category, followed by the topographic coefficient, building height, target site of assessment, roof tilt angle, and number of housing units (in that order). The wind risk assessment model in this study could be used as basic data for the estimation of damage driven by wind and for the establishment of damage reduction measures, combined with the economic value of apartment buildings′ exterior materials and interior contents.

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