In recent years, Item Response Theory (IRT) has been identified as a powerful tool for solving various problems in the measurement of organizational behavior. The characteristics of IRT, which provide amodel-based linkage between individuals' item responses and the latent trait, have many advantages which do not exist in classical test theory. In this article, the author conducted an extensive review of the literature in terms of applications of IRT to the measurement of organizational behavior. The review indicated that IRT had been increasingly applied to test development, test and item bias analysis, and equivalent language translation in the decade of the 1980s and the early 1990s. Applications of IRT to the fields of adaptive testing and adaptive measurement, however, were rare. The author discussed the theoretical and practical problems which should be overcome for further advancement in measuring organizational behavior by using IRT.

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The purpose of this paper is to explain the current issues associated with an ever growing controversy in the United States: Whether Japanese companies in the United States discriminate against U. S. citizens, in favor of their own expatriates. The first half of the paper will discuss some theories on why Japanese companies are singled out more so than other foreign or U. S. companies when employment discrimination is alleged. The second half of the paper will discuss the current U. S. discrimination laws that are applicable to foreign companies operating in the United States. The major issue surrounding these laws is the vagueness and uncertainty they have on the issue of whether a Japanese company can legally discriminate and hire a Japanese expatriate over a U. S. citizen. A conflict exists between Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which prohibits discrimination and the U. S.-Japan Friendly Cooperation and Navigation treaty which permits Japanese companies to discriminate for certain executive and specialist positions. Unfortunately the U. S. courts have not resolve this conflict. The Japanese companies do not know what constitutes discrimination and what is legally allowed. As long as the discrimination laws that are applicable to Japanese companies are not clarified, these companies will be exposed to the risk of possibly violating U. S. discrimination laws. The consequences of these uncertainty can only result in more litigation cost for the Japanese companies and more importantly, an increase in anti-Japanese sentiments. Thus, it is important for the Japanese companies to avoid employment discrimination allegations. Unfortunately, the U. S. courts have not helped to further clarify what type of discrimination practice is acceptable.

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The aim of this study is to examine the present stage internationalization of Japanese companies by identifying the employment situations of foreign personnel. To obtain empirical data and statistics, a survey of foreign employees working for Japanese companies in Japan was made covering both companies and foreign employees working for the Japanese companies in Japan.
Major findings were as follows.(1) All Japanese companies studied are rather at the initial stage of internationalization in foreigner employment.(2) Both companies and foreign employees aware slow internationalization in this area.(3) The disruption of communication seen in one case was not the same as others. It was stressed from the result that it is important for both parties to try to identify mutual expectations with flexible attitude to reach some agreement by knowing each other better.

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For professional workers, the opportunity for exhibitting their special abilities and satisfying high-order needs are not limited in organizations. Therefore, their commitment to the organizations is apt to be limited.“Direct integration” in which individuals achieve their goals by contributing to organizational goals is ineffective for professional workers.“Indirect integration”that links professional workers' activity to organizational performance by including their long-term and indirect contributions is required.
This study was designed to investigate the cognitive gap between professional workers and companies on the “directivity of integration” dimension, which consists of items about personnel appraisal, rewards, and working conditions. A questionnaire survey was conducted for four categories of professionals and companies which employ professional workers. The results indicate that compared with companies, professional workers prefer less “direct integration.” They expect a management system that guarantees atatus based on professional activities and autonomy, and appraises them on standards based on their expertise. Consequently, these results suggest that companies should adopt a management system based on the “indirect integration” paradigm.

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Recently, the international joint ventures are being developted quickly in China, and evolution of management systems and organizational structure are facilitated in Chinese enterprise. The studies about problems that the joint ventureenterprises have became an important field to be explored in industrial and organizational psychology. This study investigated 40 international joint ventures, and found three major characteristic problems: transformation problems, management style and decision making style. There are many other problems of cross-cultural and social psychological importance as well as the problem of compatibility of organizational structure in values, motivation, leadership style and management strategies of joint venture corporations. In conclusion, we suggested three psychological methods for promoting joint venture development, and three indices for evaluating the effect (perfomanc) of joint ventrue activities.

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Presently, changes toward equality among men and womem at the work place become accelerated. But, most of working women feel there are many discriminationsstill existing in the organization. Some studies reportd that the satisfactionwith a job is influenced by equality consciousness held by the working woman and the company. This study attempted to explore which factors provide satisfaction with career among women. A mail questionnaire survey was conductedin 1989, and the 314 usable data (response rate 60%) were available for the present study.
Results of the analysis indicated that the satisfaction with career is influenced by the type of industry (manufacturing), the positive attitude toward the promotionof female held by the company, the degree of discriminations in the company, and women's anticipation of equality for promotion. In addition, the factors associated with the promotion showed an important effect upon job satisfaction. Satisfaction with the compatibility of occupational roles with family roles was found to be influenced by the existence of children, the type of industry, positive attitudes toward promotion of female by the company, and the degree of discriminations perceived by women.

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