This study aims to analyze the impact of institutional and cultural distance between foreign firms’ home and host countries on the formation of joint venture partnerships and the localization of human resources in the subsidiaries of these firms in Japan. In doing so, we attempt to identify how multinational firms respond to multiple distances between countries. Our analysis of 2,524 subsidiaries of foreign firms in Japan indicates that regulatory distance, normative distance, and cultural or cognitive distance have different effects on MNEs’ decision-making and behavior in the host country. Specifically, when the regulatory distance between the home and host countries was greater, firms seemed to try to gain external legitimacy in the host country through joint venture partnerships while securing internal legitimacy by actively deploying parent country nationals rather than local human resources. In cases where the normative distance between the home and host countries was considerable, local personnel in the host country were more actively promoted at the top management and employee levels to gain legitimacy among local stakeholders. When the cultural distance between the home and host countries was great and values for job processes and behaviors were different, they were more reluctant to use local talent, especially at the employee level. The results of previous studies have yet to show the possibility of firms responding flexibly to multiple environmental differences between their home and host countries. However, the results of our analysis suggest that firms may flexibly respond to differences in multiple aspects of the environment between their home and host countries by combining the control of overseas subsidiaries through capital and human resources with local adaptation using local partners and local human resources, thereby maintaining a balance between external and internal legitimacy.

Consumer affinity is a subjective concept based on an individual’s emotional bond with a specific object that affects the interaction between the target country, company, brand, or product and the consumer. In international marketing research, affinity has gained attention since the late 2000s as a concept representing consumers’ stable and positive feelings toward a specific foreign country. Previous studies have empirically demonstrated the positive impact of affinity on purchase intentions, as well as product and service evaluations in the target country. However, few studies have examined the managerial question of how marketing actors, such as firms, industry associations, governments, and local governments, can augment the affinity of foreign consumers toward their home countries. Therefore, this study explores some important personal experiences of consumers that affect dynamic changes in consumer affinity by analyzing qualitative data. By analyzing the relationship between affinity changes and the personal experiences of 30 Chinese consumers in Japan, we propose a marketing strategy to increase the number of Chinese fans in Japan, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The results show that some specific experiences in Japan will increase Chinese consumers’ affinity for Japan, regardless of their macro and micro perceptions before arriving in Japan. Furthermore, the evaluation of their consumption experience in Japan compared to that in their home country （China） affected the change in their affinity toward Japan. This study suggests a marketing strategy for Japanese companies, industry associations, and local governments to increase their affinity for Japan by providing Chinese consumers with targeted consumption experiences.

Scholarly research has explored the relationship between language skills used by expatriates for local management and adjustment, as well as the impact of trust on organizational performance. However, there is a lack of in-depth exploration concerning the specific role of language, particularly the host country language, in enhancing host country nationals’（ HCNs） trust in expatriates and nurturing successful expatriate-HCN relationships. To address this gap, this study conducted in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 6 expatriates and 11 HCNs working in China. By incorporating insights from both perspectives, this study found that the host language proficiency of expatriates and the corporate language （English） proficiency of HCNs mutually reinforce each other, co-shaping distinct cross-cultural interaction styles and influencing trust-building. These findings highlight the necessity of considering the language proficiency of diverse cross-cultural groups to establish a conducive communicative environment and contribute to a comprehensive understanding of local trust building characterized by variations in language proficiency in cross-lingual interactions.