A series of field studies has been carried on about the spatial distribution of individuals of several natural groups of the Japanese macaque. One of these studies was the test on the beach rocks named “Ikada-no-iwa” (photo) in “Kosima”, a small island near the southeast coast of Kyusyu. The test was made as follows. The rocks were fictionally divided into 6 sections as Fig. 2, and the sections 1-5 had wheat grains scattered on their upper surfaces, while the remainder section 6 had no grain. One group of 20 monkeys (Table 1) came and fed on these grains. Every 5 minutes, locations of all individuals were recorded or determined by the numbers of the sections occupied by them. Fig. 3 shows the individual records of 2 test series executed in Feb. and Nov. 1954, either of them involving 50 observation times. Fig. 4 shows the differences between the means of the 2 test series. Based on these calculated figures, it was concluded that the position of every individual in the group space, was characteristic of his own status in the group organization, and that every change in the individual position between the 2 test series was regular and reasonable in accordance with the change in the status. As a whole, the picture of distribution of individuals in this test, is in good correlation with the scheme, Fig. 1, which is the simplified conclusion from the several years' field experiences.

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The inter-specific relations among three species of domestic fowls, turkeys (T : 3_??__??_, 7_??__??_), geese (G : 3_??__??_, 5_??__??_) and ducks (D : 6_??__??_, 9_??__??_) reared in a common aviary were observed from November 1954 to April 1955. The pattern of the spatial distribution of each species was concerned together with their interaction in case of locomotion.
Groups of three species behaved independently each other both spatially and temporally, that is, a specific grouping was established and these groups acted also as the locomoting units except T-group which was not so tightly integrated. G exhibited remarkable escape response to the mere approach of T without a observable threatening, and D escaped more intensively, from the approach of G with or without threatening, but apparently from that of T. Consequently the locomotion pattern of these flocks was regulated principally through a chain order of T→G→D→. Formally, a dominance order of linear type (T>G>D) may be pointed out, however, the following two findings are note-worthy ; 1) The inter-specific tensions in each pair of two specific flocks. differed qualitatively from each other. 2) The relative sharing of the limited space was held mainly by the escape of subordinate groups before the actual aggression of dominant groups.
In feeding situation, D stood at a more advanced position than G because the existence of dominant-T, resulted in the avoidance of G for food-box i. e., the difference between the inter-group tension between T-G and that between_T-D were showed clearly.

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It was already made clear in my previous study that cats' behavior immediately after escape in the problem box was stereotyped but in part variety was seen. The reason why the stereotypedness and variety occur has not yet been decidedly explained, although it has been studied by LORGE, GENGERELLI, THORNDIKE, HUNTER, SOLOMON, HULL, HEATHERS and others. E. R. GUTHRIE considered that the variety of behavior was due to the difference of the way of approaching stimulus. To clarify this variety, I used the latency between stimulus and response as an indicator. E. R. GUTHRIE & G. P. HORTON'S apparatus was used. The latency here means the time spent from the entrance of the problem box to approaching the stimulus and touching it.
Results- (1) When the stimulus was located on the left side or the right side of the problem box, the latency decreased as the trials increased ; and when located in the center, a stereotyped curve was obtained.
(2) When the conditioned stimulus was located in the center, the latency curve was generally rising ; and when on the left or the right side it was a decreasing curve.
(3) When the position of the stimulus in the box was reinforced by 10 trials-unit (3 series : left→right→center, right→center→left, and center→left→right), the latency was stereotyped, and the position habit to the first position in each series was somewhat seen.

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A total of 108 white rats were divided into three groups with different drive levels. The rat was given a daily rewarded run for 20 days and extinguished by the same procedure without reward in a straight runway. Based on time measures, _SE_R was computed by the use of HULL'S quantification method and empirical equations of _SE_R as, a function of group median time scores for reinforced trials were fitted. The equations were used for calculating._SE_R for individual subjects for the most unstable and most stable periods in learning. Pearsonian r's between obtained _SE_R and either of two transformed time measures (reciprocals and logs) were shown to be nearly unity, , indicating the validity of the transformed measures as linear indices of _SE_R. The same statistic between _SE_R and raw scores, on the other hand, was relatively low.The log score was slightly superior to the reciprocal.
Inter-individual variability together with intra-individual variability was measured on the assumption that they were proportional and the result supported the assumption.
Main findings on response variability were as follows :
1. A reverse relationship between variability and drive strength was obtained using the log scale. If the animal was assumed to have a relatively constant amount of drive, less hungry rats would be motivated by a greater amount of incidental drives, e. g. exploratory drive. Consequently to-be-conditioned stimuli for those rats would be more complex than for rats under longer food deprivation. No obvious relationship was obtained for the reciprocal scale.
2. Response variability increased as a function of reinforcements using reciprocals; the finding agreed with HULL. The opposite was true for logs. The latter was interpreted that stimuli irrelevant to the primary drive was extinguished to a greater degree with reinforced trials and thus the learning response had become less variable with trials.
3. Response variability increased in extinction as compared with that in acquisition. This was found for both scales. Since the primary drive was not reduced in extinction, stimuli relevant to then-existing drives such as exploratory or frustration drive would control at least some part of the rat's behavior. These stimuli were apparently unstable and not specific, causing variability in response.

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The same discrimination-learning problem at equidistant six positions within a rectilinear maze was assigned to six different groups of white rats. It was found that discrimination-learning near the start-box and near the goal-box was better than at the other non-polar positions. Learning, at 240 cm from the start-box (the whole length of the linear maze was 400cm), was the slowest. This result showed that there is a considerably clear bi-directional gradient within the linear maze, which appeared at the post-stage of learning. Further study of the problems, presented by the area between the start-box and the discrimination-apparatus, will be necessary for detailed analysis of bi-directional gradient.

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The present experiments were designed to ascertain whether animal learns anything about positive stimulus cues before it learns a discrimination problem i.e., before it responds systematically to the positive stimulus cues and while it may be responding to other stimulus cues. For this purpose two experiments by the technique of reversed cues were conducted, one dealing with the learning under conditions of non-correction method and the other dealing with the learning by correction method.
In Exp. I the Ss (albino rats) were divided into two groups, experimental and control, and the two groups learned a white-black discrimination problem under conditions of punishment, easy problem, and non-correction. The control group ran to a white (or black) stimulus as the positive stimulus without pre-reversed training until the criterion was reached. The experimental group, on the other hand, was given 20 preliminary learning trials with the black (or white) as the positive stimulus, and on the 21th trial the stimuli were reversed, the white (or black) becoming the positive stimulus. The apparatus used was a discrimination box previously described by GRICE (3). Procedure for Exp. II was identical with that for Exp. I, except that correction method was used. In Exp. II modified Lashley-jumping box (2) was chosen as apparatus. The part of apparatus to which rat jump was left unaltered, but _??_ shaped runway of wooden strips 2.5 cm. wide was used in place of the jumping stand, and the open end of the _??_ was fastened to the window bottoms.
The results were as follows : In Exp. I the control group (N = 9) averaged 36.7 trials and 9.1 errors in reaching the criterion after 20 trials, the experimental group (N= 8) 78.1 trials and 28.0 errors. In Exp. II the control group (N=9) averaged 58.9 trials and 16.3 errors, the experimental group (N = 8) 165.0 trials and 74.5 errors. The difference in each experiment was statistically significant.
The results of the investigation are considered to be in agreement with the continuity theory and are in a opposition to the non-continuity theory of discrimination learning.

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The purpose of the present experiment is to study the cues, which will give some light upon the condition of learning in details. I carried out the investigation of the latent learning under the condition of a drive, which is weaker and more powerful than that of TOLMANS' group, that is, 12 hours drive by food deprivation. Then I used TOLMAN & GLEITMAN maze (13) and a method similar to that.
1. 16 rats were given equal reinforcement in both end boxes. But both end sections were very different in perceptual natures. After equal training on the two sides, the rats. were shocked in either of the end boxes of the sections.
2. Half of the rats were motivated 22 hours of food deprivation and the other half, 8 hours of the same deprivation.
3. In the test trial, one group which was given 22 hours of food deprivation, all avoided the goal boxes, in which they had been shocked, and this fact corresponded to the TOLMAN & GLEITMAN results, showing “latent learning” But the other group, which was given 8 hours of food deprivation, did not show distinctly the sign of avoiding the goal boxes, in which they had been shocked.
4. The results are discussed in connection with the TOLMAN & GLETTMAN (13) MINTURN (7), SEWARD (9), experiments.
5. I suppose that latent learning is difficult to find under such a weak condition of drive.

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Problems : E. R. GUTHRIE & G. P. HORTON considered that cats' behavior immediately before escape was stereotyped and in part the variety of the behavior depended upon (1) the delicate change of stimulus-situation and (2) the difference of the way of approaching the stimulus. Our result was just the same. These two problems have been variously explained by many writers as the problems of cues in learning. But we planned first of all the analysis of organism itself, and studied especially the effect of the excitement of the autonomic nerves on animals' behavior.
Apparatus : Revolving wheel.
Animals : 22 mice _??_, each 15g.
Stimulants : Adrenalin 10^-5 for sympathetic nerve.
Acetylcholine 10^-5 for parasympathetic nerve.
Method : After hypodermic injection, the rate of revolving for 30 minutes was recorded.
Result : When the sympathetic nerves were excited, animals' behavior was restrained; and when the parasympathetic nerves were excited, an accelerative effect resulted. Thus the effect of these drugs on the autonomic nerves seemed to be an.important element in animals' behavior.

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The maze turning behavior of Armadillidum vulgare, a terrestrial isopod crustacea, was studied in order to test the possible operation of C. L. HULL's principle of reactive inhibition. The mazes used for the experiments were made of frosted glass plates and were shown diagrammatically in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. The number of animals turning right or left at T choice-points was counted for each maze. Experiments were carried out in dark-room under constant illumination. The results obtained were summarized as follows :
(1) The distribution of right or left turns at a T choice-point preceded by a straightaway approach agreed exactly with chance expectancy.
(2) The strong tendency of alternation of turning directions at succeeding T choice-points was clearly observed.
(3) When an animal approached a T choice-point along a pass requiring two preceding right turns (two-turn maze), the tendency of its turning in opposite direction was further enhanced in comparison with the situation of only one preceding right turn (one-turn maze).
(4) In the one-turn maze, as the length of straightaway between T choice-point and its preceding right turn (OF in Fig. 2) was increased, the opposite turning tendency at T choice-point became less pronounced, and in the case of 16cm length, the effect of preceding turning was not recognizable and the distribution of right and left turnings at T choice-point closely approximated chance expectancy.
(5) In the two-turn mazes, the increase of length of straightaway, may it be either of F₂T or F₁F₂ in Fig. 3, had an effect of decreasing the tendency of the animals to turn in the opposite direction at T choice-point. However, the straight-away as long as 16 cm, which was enough to diminish the acquired tendency of alternative turning in one-turn maze, was not sufficient to diminish the effect of preceding turning in two-turn mazes.
The results above mentioned are all be interpreted as conforming the expectation based upon the reactive inhibition principle.

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[in Japanese]

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