On March and April in 1895, Lafcadio Hearn and Basil Hall Chamberlain controverted on Herbert Spencer's psychological theories in their correspondence. This controvercy is remarkable, for it shows wide difference between the two authors in their points of view on the study of Japanese culture. Hearn explained each nation's psychological characteristics as “the aggregates of race-experience” and Chamberlain emphasized the importace of transmission and borrowing from nation to nation. This paper tries to follow this controversy to examine Hearn's unique understanding of Spencer's works, and concludes that he had read into Spencer his belief in each nation's particular psychological identity.

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In TLS January 11. 1985, Japan, Mr. Anthony Thwaite wrote about Hearn under the title of From the heart of things. “Even at his bitterest, he (Hearn) always wrote about Japan with love and respect, as an outsider who worked from Kokoro - the heart of things.” “He thought the Japanese spontaneous and free, a child-like people. But by the time he wrote Japan : an Attempt at Interpretation, he saw them as disciplined and determined.” This book was published in 1904, the year of Hearn's death, and twenty years had passed when An American Miscellany by Lafcadio Hearn, void (collected by Albert Mordell) was issued in New York with the collector Mordell's very long introduction.
It is on page lxxvi of the introduction that we find “Japan gave him (Hearn) nothing;... He had done in America precisely what he did in Japan.” On reading this, almost all of us are immediately brought about to manifest it unconvincing, or rather doubt if Mordell read Hearn's various works in Japan without bias and without favor. We cannot help bringing forth a counterargument from the Japanese side.
Suppose Japan gave Hearn nothing, we may say Hearn's writings in Japan will cease to have a raison d'être because his stand on a unique and splendid description of Japanese things mental or physical is eradicated.
It does not require a lot of time to call to mind what Japan gave Hearn. Some of them are the Japanese climate, Japanese manners and customs, human feelings, Setsuko, the Japanese smile, heart, soul and spirit, Japanese tales, stories or legends, Shintoism or Buddhism and the like. No doubt he cultivated them as media.
Staying in Matsue, where he got his job as a teacher in English at Matsue middle school, he was soon enamored with Shintoism, which surpassed his knowledge and anticipation cherished in America to a surprising extent. Shintoism may be counted as one of the biggest that answered his purpose to interpret Japan and the Japanese. As is often said, there are, in Shintoism, no set doctrines, no ethical codes or no dominance of a particular god or gods. And to Hearn's great surprise, the people could worship Buddhism side by side with Shintoism.
It seems quite suitable for us to inquire into the relation between Japan and Hearn beginning with Shintoism. And, if possible, it would be better to take Hearn and Japanese into consideration, because Japanese was a formidable barrier for him to get over till he breathed his last in Tokyo in 1904.

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From 1888 to 1895 there were three American Teachers who successively taught English in the Toyama Middle School. The first teacher was Clarence Ludlow Brownell, the second one was George N. Wells and the last was Andrew Foster. I would like to clarify the contribution of the “Yatois” to English education in Toyama by retracing their experiences and reviewing writings about them. As the first part of my study this is about C. L. Brownell and his experiences.
Brownell came to Toyama as the first American teacher after a two-year stay in Tokyo. Though he was the first foreigner to live in Toyama except for missionaries, Brownell rarely appeared in newspaper articles those days in Toyama, unlike Lafcadio Hearn who also attracted attention as the “yatoi” teacher in Matsue. A few writings about Brownell suggest that he was a good teacher but sometimes looked a little careless. One of his students says, “His classes were good, but he was a philanderer.” However, it might have been his frank expression of appreciation to his young maid that caused such misunderstanding. He left the Toyama Middle School in March of 1890.
It seemed that he was a teacher of Waseda college and other private schools in Tokyo again, and left Japan in about 1892. “Encyclopedia Americana” says, 'He did special work on Japanese history and Buddhism for British Museum.'Icannot yet make it clear what it was, though I have been trying to. He died in Jacksonville, Florida, in 1927.
Were there any moments he remembered those days in Toyama or other places in Japan, when he served as a headmaster or educator in America? What did he see or think as the first American teacher in Toyama one hundred years ago? If it was possible, I would ask him such a question. In the near future I hope his books about Japan will make his thoughts and experiences in Japan much clearer to me.

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Arthur Morrison (1863-1945) is known as an English novelist who described the lives of the poor in the East End of London realistically around the turn of the century. His major works are “Tales of Mean Streets”, “A Child of the Jago”, “The Hole in the Wall”, etc. Although Morrison never went to Japan, he was also a keen collector and scholar of Japanese art (Japanese woodcut prints and paintings). Morrison wrote “The Painters of Japan” in 1911 which was regarded as indispensable contribution to Japanese art studies for around fifty years. His collections of Japanese prints and paintings which his studies of Japanese art were based upon have become parts of Japanese art collections at the British Museum. This essay examines how Arthur Morrison developed his interests and studies on Japanese prints and paintings through the contacts with Japanese people in London, such as Kumagusu Minakata, Kanzan Shimomura, Tokuboku Hirata and his friendship with W. E. Henley, Harold Parlett, Laurence Binyon. This essay also focuses on what Morrison gained personally from his studies of Japanese art, particularly Japanese prints (Ukiyoe) and his contacts and friendship with Japanese people in London. Through my study of Morrison's analogy between the Ukiyoe painters in the history of Japanese art and himself as regards their subjects, methods, etc., it can be concluded that Morrison might have received stronger influence from Japanese art than what is usually thought.

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Though few people have paid attention to the English supplementary readers in the Meiji era, they cannot be ignored in that they formed one of the main channels through which Western culture flowed into Japan. As English was an important subject at school in those days and it happened that a number of teachers used literary works as their textbooks, English literature, coupled with English thought, rapidly infiltrated into Japan. The purpose of this article is to examine the kinds of works chosen as textbooks and how they affected Japanese culture in general.
It was in 1877 (the 10th year of the Meiji era) that the first 3 English readers were published at the newly organized Tokyo University. Beginning in 1877 until the close of the Meiji era, more then 400 diverse readers of this kind were published. It was through these English textbooks that Japanese students realized for the first time what Western novels were like and how Western people tended to think. Among those who were deeply engrossed in the readers were many gifted persons who were to take part in laying the groundwork for the construction of a new Japan, or others who were to create their own imaginative literary works later. By examining these textbooks published during the Meiji era, a feeling for the spiritual atmosphere, in which the ability of such Japanese leaders was fostered, is made much clearer. Moreover, it also sheds light on the early activities of leading publishers such as Maruzen, Yuhikaku and Sanseido and provides insights into the early English education in Japan.

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[in Japanese]

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Two English-Japanese dictionaries which were compiled by the respectable interpreters of the Dutch language at the end of the Edo period were not completed. It was partly because the compilers were not specialists in the English language, and partly because they did not recognize the importance of the source dictionaries from which they edited. One of the English-Dutch dictionaries which formed the basis of the English-Japanese dictionary was considered the best and the most useful on account of its full phonetic representation and its variety of illustrative examples. And the other source dictionary was thought to be the richest in its entry words. The distinctive merits of these source dictionaries, however, turned out to be difficulties for the compilers of the English-Japanese dictionaries. On the other hand, Tatsunosuke Hori, another Dutch interpreter, used a pocket English-Dutch dictionary as a base-book of his English-Japanese dictionary, knowing that in spite of its poor content it would be much easier to compile the dictionary. It took him only two years to complete it with the aid of his colleagues.

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[in Japanese]

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Joaquin Miller, a well-known poet as the “Byron of Oregon”, lived his final years on the hills above Oakland, California. Many literary figures and artists gathered there, which seemed to be “a mecca for the lovers of art.” Among them was Yone Noguchi, who wrote some volumes of poetry and was praised in the U. S. and England. He returned to Japan as a world-famous poet.
At the turn of the century some Japanese young men follwed Noguchi to stay at Miller's heights, since Miller was born to a Quaker family and was not a racist. Some of them hoped to be poets and others, painters.
Isen Kanno, who was born in Sanuma, Miyagi Prefecture, and studied theology in Doshisha, came to Oakland in 1903 and became one of Miller's students. While he learned the art of composing poetry, he fell in love with a sculptress, Gertrude F. Boyle, who stayed there to make a bust of Miller's mother. Though the Japanese were then prohibited from marrying the white American women by law, he was married to Gertrude to prove what love could do.
He wrote articles for the Japanese immigrants' newspapers and composed poetry. One of his works was Creation Dawn privately published in 1913, which was staged at the Forest Theater in Carmel-by-the-Sea with Mr. and Mrs. Kanno playing parts of hero and heroin. They got a great reputation from both Japanese and Americans by this performance. Isen Kanno must have been happy to be successful, but Fortune didn't keep smiling on him. His happy life was suddenly broken by his wife's love affair with a young art student, Eitaro Ishigaki. This scandal created such a great sensation among the San Franciscans that Gertrude and Ishigaki could stay there no longer and moved to New York. Isen suffered from the betrayal by the two he had believed in. After a month he left Miller's heights and went to Aileton to be a farmer.
This is an essay on Isen Kanno's life from his birth to the days he lived in Oakland and San Francisco. The rest of his life will be made clear in the next essay.

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Shakespeare's name first appeared in Japanese in 1841 in Shibukawa Rokuzo's translation of the Dutch version of Lindley Murray's English Grammar.
The first performance of Shakespeare on the Japanese stage was The Merchant of Venice, in 1885, in the Ebisu Theater, Osaka. It was the Kabuki version adapted under the title of Sakuradoki Zenino Yononaka. It has been said that this adaptation is based on Charles and Mary Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare and rendered by Bunkai Udagawa, but the author wishes to show in the present study that it is based on the original texts of Shakespeare. The Merchant of Venice, however, was adapted and outlined from Lamb's version several times. Tsutomu Inoue, for instance, translated The Merchant of Venice in 1883, and titled it Jinniku Shichiire Saiban.
The real introduction of Shakespeare began in the 1880s. Keizo Kawashima opened a new phase by publishing his translation of the original version of Julius Caesar in 1883. It was first serialized in Nihon Rikken Seito Shimbun and later compiled into a book titled 'Romanseisuikan' in collaboration with Tenko Komiyama.
Thus we may come to the conclusion that Sakuradoki Zenino Yononaka was rendered by Keizo and Tenko.

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Fukuzawa's visit to Yokohama, one of the ports newly opened on July 1, 1859, has been regarded as one of the most important events in his life. His experiences at the open port made him decide to begin learning English, giving up Dutch which he had learned desperately for many years. His great achievements in westernization of Japan in his later years implicit in this event.
The present article presents evidence enough to prove that this impressive episode, however, is a fiction. In reality he had started his English study certainly before the opening of Yokohama.
The other episodes on his efforts of studying English, the persons from whom he learned English, his three visits abroad and a number of English books he brought back on each occasion contain several points seriously out of accord with the actual facts.
It seems to be most unfortunate that Fukuzawa paid no respects to numerous pioneers of English studies in Japan many years before him, as a result of giving himself the position as such in his autobiography.
Conscious and unconscious fictionalization is a destiny of an autobiography, and this masterpiece by Fukuzawa the great cannot be an exception.

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After teaching English at the Normal School of Akita for three years, Christopher Carrothers left the town in summer, 1882.
The townspeople may have long forgotten him when they found his name in an article of a Tokyo newspaper in September, 1913. The contributor was Kohkichi Odake, an ex-member of the feminist group Seitoh (so named after the Blue Stockings).
She reported her recent visit to Akita to the grave of a young girl named Nobuko Tazaki, who had committed suicide when she was disappointed in love for Carrothers, as Odake understood.
Another article to refute her understanding appeared in a local newspaper immediately after her report, claiming that Carrothers had murdered his love because he had found her burdensome on leaving the town.
The truth about the girl's death was left unknown when Carrothers had left the town for good. Today few people in Akita know of either of them, but the girl's grave, with English inscriptions apparently testifying to Carrothers's commitment to its building, remains where Odake visited it 80 years ago.
The report of the visit to the girl's grave made by the feminist Odake arouses our interest in contrasting the two women, who seem to share unconventionality in their ways of life.

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