It is not until about 1990 that the scarcity of women in S&T became a topic to be discussed. A full-fledged struggle to increase the number of female researchers in the EU began in 1998 with the purpose of increasing the scale of research and development to 3% of the GDP by 2010. Without female researchers, this goal is impossible, and a great deal of talent will be wasted. In terms of Asian countries’ progress on this issue, Asian researchers have held workshops and symposia in order to increase the number of women in S&T.
　 This special issue contains six papers on women in S&T in Japan. Kawano’s paper deals with the horizontal segregation of female high school students. Uchida’s paper deals with professional choices by female graduates from technical colleges and emphasized the importance of education for their career paths. Miura’s paper explored the horizontal segregation and vertical segregation in S&T. Shiomitsu and Tsugawa investigated the social background to female researchers. Takarabe concludes that increasing the number of female researchers in the private sector is important for the future development in S&T in Japan.
　 Finally, as a supplementary explanation I introduced the Dual-Career Academic Couple Problems which is newly emerging among female researchers.

　This research is to examine the advancement towards women in science-related jobs or fields in university from the viewpoint of gender. The results of TIMSS and PISA show that Japanese students in primary and junior high school are rated highly compared to international standards. However, it is undeniable that many of them carry negative attitudes towards science. It also appears that female students tend to have a much more negative image of science than their male counterparts in Japan. One possible reason for this is the lack of an appropriate environment both at school and at home. Actually, the result of the questionnaire, which I conducted in 2004, clearly reveals that people have a natural tendency to emphasize gender-based courses for students. When they choose their academic courses in high school days, people around motivate males to take ‘science courses’ and females to take ‘humanities.’ It is necessary that we improve the situation for the female students who are blindly led to take ‘humanities’ as their academic course choice. My conclusion of this research is that we need to provide female students with enough support when choosing their course and reevaluate the course selection framework itself.

　In this research, the labor circumstances of the female engineers who graduated from the Technical College are analyzed. And it is suggested that the education there should pay attention to the female students. The analysis of labor circumstances clarifies that of the first job and the pattern of the job continuation. It is also that they play a major role as skilled engineers at their workplace. In the future the education system at the Technical College will be required to be more conscious of gender-related matters.

　Since the 3^rd Basic Plan for Science and Technology started in 2006, policy programs have started to promote the activities of female researchers in science and technology fields. However, one of the critical points on the career-path of female scientists in Japan, in comparison to the European Union, was recently noticed. In Japan, the critical juncture is the entrance into the graduate schools, based on the male/female ratios of students and academic staff in the science and technology fields. A possible reason is the difficulties that women face in finding suitable scientific jobs upon completion of graduate school. Anticipation of this problem would lead to lower graduate school enrollment for women that eventually affects the ratio of female/male researchers, not only in academia but also in the business sector.

　The percentage of female researchers in Japan is just 13.0%, which is very low with comparison to those of European countries and the United States. Thus, “the 3rd Science and Technology Basic Plan” (Cabinet Decision, March, 2006) expanded its description on policies for supporting female researchers, and authorized funding for them from FY2006 for the first time in the history of the governmental budget. The budget seemed to remarkably and steadily increase from 666 million yen (FY2006), 1.1 billion yen (FY2007) to 1.8 billion yen (FY2008). This paper analyses the current situations of female researchers and the governmental policies for supporting them. It also studies the policy items and their budget amount to clarify the agenda and necessary measures in order to promote gender equality in the field of science and technology in Japan.

　Industry plays a key role in research, development and innovation. More than half the research in Japan is carried out by the private sector, yet only 7% of industrial researchers are women and their opportunities to progress to senior level positions are minimal.
　In order to attract more women scientists and engineers to industry, and to keep and promote them there, in this paper, I will examine the unequal situation surrounding them in industry, and demonstrate activities of the COSMOS community, for the promotion of the women engineers, created by IBM-Japan; the top-down & bottom-up community offers them mentoring, role models, workshops, and Web Wiki site.
　Japanese industry should come to appreciate the merits of a more gender-equal approach to R&D; deeper studies need to be provided, as the Women in Science and Technology (WiST) highlighted that positive female promotion could bring good record of business.

　Growing concern on women in science, engineering and technology in Japan is based on two major rationales. One is a long-established argument that it is a waste of resource if we do not recognize the potential of women who compose of about half the country’s population. The other is that the trend toward fewer children and more seniors will continue in future. It is clear a male-oriented workforce will not be able to support a “Science & Technology-based Nation” as Japan has achieved up to now.
　 In this paper, we first describe the recent situation of Japanese women researchers. From a survey, many women reported that they have been subject to inequalities in recruitment, promotion and evaluation. They commented that these inequalities were a direct result of marital status or experience of giving birth. Interestingly, the survey found that their executive directors have recognized the presence of such inequalities.
　 Next we introduce many trials and activities of Japanese universities to promote women researchers in science, engineering and technology. We hope that the time will come when women researchers’ power, which has not been fully developed so far, really contributes to society.

　Based on the reviews of previous studies, the author introduces research theme examples in the studies of intersection between Science and Law; 1) Responsibility of “science in the making”: Precautionary principle, 2) Gap between “science in the making” and public image of science, 3) Social problems caused by gap between S&T developing speed and law changing speed. Several Japanese case studies are shown as examples for each category.
　 Moreover, based on the discussion of Workshop at JSSTS annual meeting 2008, future research themes are summarized as follows; 1) Science literacy for lawyers, 2) Problems caused by differences in logics between science and law and those caused by institutional inadequacy, 3) Who should solve problems visualized by trial process in the court, and how? These themes will open the door to the more detailed discussion for further studies.

　Recently, the time from discovery of new scientific knowledge to its adaption into our society is reduced year after year. While on the other hand, the people who are faced with these new technologies are concerned about their potential risk. This has sparked a lot of discussions in our society on how to control the potential risk of these new technologies.
　 Thus, they are often brought into the Courts and Judges are sometimes asked to call a stop to the use of these technologies.
　 However, the Courts are unable to deal with the problems of uncertain scientific situation, due to the false conception held by many lawyers in Japan that science always provides us a correct, certain and unique solution.
　 In this report, utilizing my experience as a lawyer, I will introduce the famous leading case of the Japanese Supreme Court, called “the lumbar case”, and highlight some Japanese lawyer’s false views on science. I would like to also point out that we have no standard rules for the use of scientific evidence. Then I will introduce a case where we can see confusion regarding scientific fact-finding. Finally, I emphasize the necessity for cooperation between lawyers and scientists, and the reorganization of rules dealing with scientific evidence and testimony of expert witnesses.

　In a judicial trial, science meets society. As an expert witness, the author appeared before the judge and experienced how science was treated in a court. From the experience, and from the survey on the records of adjudication and submitted scientific evidences into courts, the author found the lack of fairness in scientific discussion in a court. The author reports and discusses the problems in the following order: 1) why science is required into a court, 2) typical scientific discussion in a Japanese court, 3) conflict between Japanese rules of civil procedure and the fairness of scientific discussion, 4) false image of science in a judicial circle, 5) the relation between the expected role of expert witness and scientist’s code, 6) the problem of the traditional science education, which has led misunderstanding of science in a judicial circle. Finally, we discuss the need for cooperative action between scientists and lawyers.

　Responding to the drastic change of food environment in Japan after the W. W. II, two types of trials, namely, “industrial pollution trial” and “anxiety trial”, have been brought in court. The criminal trial regarding Morinaga (arsenic poisoning by powdery milk) and the civil trial regarding Kanemi (PCB and dioxin poisoning by cooking oil) are focused as the most typical case of industrial pollution trial, while Pesticide residue trial and GM (Genetically modified) rice trail are focused as the contemporary case of anxiety trial. This paper suggests three points to discuss about “Science at the Bar” by analyzing the scientific controversy that destined the direction of each trial respectively.
　 Regardless of the type of trial, the trend of scientific controversy depends on the framework of controversy which is determined by the agenda setting and capabilities of evidence gathering. In line with this, two points such as science literacy of the legal profession and collaboration between lawyer and scientists can be elicited. On the other hand, there is fundamental difference as for the purpose of scientific controversy between two types of trail. In line with this, another point such as channel from court to policy can be elicited.

　This paper presents a review of the literatures on “science in a court” focusing on the following points: 1) How should the judicial decision be made, once the scientific knowledge, which is the basis of an act reviewed in the court, has changed? 2) If the scientific knowledge is lacking in the judges, they may seek a written statement of the scientists or the expert witnesses. They, however, might not be able to understand what is written or testified in turn: the dilemma of the scientific trial. How can they overcome that? 3) Firstly, administrative law scholars argue that the judges should not try to review whether the administrative judgment on safety of a nuclear reactor is right or not. However, they ought to concentrate only on a review of the rationality of the administrative process. 4) Secondly, in any case, it would be necessary to improve scientific literacy of the judges. 5) Thirdly, when scientific opinions are divided, judges should not rush to conclude on the basis of one-sided opinion. In many cases the judgments can be given on legal issues before deciding the right scientific opinion. 6) Finally, it is often appropriate to discuss the treatment of new technologies and those potential risks not at the court but at the social schemes such as ADR or Consensus Conference.

　The purpose of this paper is to analyze the diffusion of wind power systems and residential photovoltaic systems (PV) in Japan by focusing on the interaction between technology and markets and to contribute towards recommendations on technology policy and management. This paper proposes a framework for analyzing the early stage of diffusion processes regarding these systems as the complex technological systems by combining the use of several approaches. Firstly, technological factors are investigated by analyzing the adoption of usage. Secondly, economic factors are evaluated by analyzing the installation and running costs for these systems. Furthermore, effective diffusion factors of these systems are investigated by analyzing the stakes among actors including an analysis of the demand related factors of the residential PV customers obtained by a questionnaire (carried out by New Energy Foundation in Japan in 2004). Thirdly, a comparison is made on the value of investments for these systems and some issues of concern are pointed out. Our recommendations on technology policy are given and we conclude as follows.
　In Japan, these systems were developed efficiently and potential power exists for diffusing renewable energy. However, effective measures for raising the incentives for stakeholders, including institutional reform would be required.

　This paper aims to describe how the nuclear technology has been socially constructed. The author advocates social factors for the evaluation of the commercial power reactor in U. S. and Japan with methods such as Strong Program Items (causality, impartiality, symmetry, reflexivity) proposed by David Bloor. The author also suggests ten items for assessing technology (historical background, industrial technical potential, man power, budget, technical selection, safety, economical efficiency, market occupation, historical development continuance) as his original contribution to the discussion.
　 The results show that the most important factors that are able to conquer the world with the light-water reactor developed in U. S. are excellent safety and economical efficiency, especially the dominant position of the economical efficiency is the decisive factor. Furthermore, it was possible to commercialize Pressurized Water Reactor as well as Boiling Water Reactor without the military atomic submarine technology.
　 Obvious characteristics of the social construction of the nuclear technology in U. S. are appearing in the following technologies; (1) the production of atomic bombs in the Second World War, (2) the commercialization of the light-water reactor that pursued the safety and economical efficiency, (3) the freezing of the plutonium technology such as the reprocessing plant and fast breeder reactor.

　Oversupply of post-doctoral fellows (postdocs) has become an increasingly serious problem in Japan, especially after the policies implemented in 1990’s to expand graduate education to produce advanced professionals. This paper, focusing on the career formation of postdocs, analyses why postdocs do not, or cannot become advanced non-academic professionals and stay as postdocs.
　 The investigation is based on two research results on theoretical physics majors (nuclear and particle physicists). One was conducted to interview postdocs themselves, and the other was carried out sending questionnaire to Ph. D. holders who had decided to pursue their careers in the fields other than academic posts. The reason why we focused on theoretical physics was because it is a basic research field whose achievements do not lead directly to employment in industries, and that the field has been facing the unemployment problem for a long time in Japan.
　 Based on our research results, we found three phases that are confining their careers as postdocs, and two conditions necessary for their career change. Also in conclusion we made suggestions for initiatives to tackle the situation based on our analyses.

　In Japan, kidnaps and murders of school children have become serious social concerns recently. A system was introduced using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) chips putting on school bags to monitor school children. This study investigated why this surveillance system was accepted to Japanese schools despite the concern over human monitoring and privacy invasion. A questionnaire survey was conducted for 576 pairs of parents and children of a private school. They have been using the system for one and a half year. The results showed that they (1) do not take serious of children’s privacy rights, (2) accept the system regardless of technical knowledge of RFID, (3) understand the system does not work for children’s actual safety but does work to keep parents’ peace of mind, (4) are influenced by mass media’s kidnapping news rather than actual crime data, and (5) demand more powerful system such as GPS function and CCTV to assure children’s actual safety. The paper concluded that the RFID system was accepted because it assured parents’ “peace of mind”; however it may generate risk for endangering children’s safety by data eavesdropping. Based on these results, it is recommended to discuss putting RFID chips on children to monitor them.

　A brief survey by questionnaire was conducted to show that the readability of newspaper articles on science depends on individual articles. In other words, some kind of articles might generally be considered difficult to read. An open-ended question gave the clue to what gives readers the impression that some stories are difficult and others easy. Some specific words related to the difficulty were extracted from the responses, such as knowledge, interest, specialty, words etc. It leads to the presumption that people tend to think that scientific articles are easy to understand when they contain fewer technical terms and require less previous knowledge of the field they deal with. It was also indicated that readers feel less difficulty in reading a certain article when similar news are often reported by newspapers or TV and have become familiar to them. These results have not been specified in previous studies in Japan, and will be quite helpful in finding the way that the society members share an increasing amount of scientific information these days.