Among the bamboo and wooden slips, there are “practice slips” that show signs of learning letters, words, and calligraphy. These slips clearly show how the copyists of the time learned to write. This paper analyzes the calligraphy of bamboo and wooden slips found in the late Later Han Dynasty, and tries to understand how the copyists of the time attempted to learn the letters and calligraphy, and to discuss their awareness of the classification of calligraphic styles as seen in the slips and the formulation of new commonly used calligraphic styles.

  The main copyists of the time were clerks deeply involved in the administration of documents, and they were expected to accurately master about 3,000 useful characters, write them in multiple calligraphic styles, and pay attention to the beauty of the characters. As shown in the practice slips of the late Later Han Dynasty, it can be seen that they were aiming to master multiple calligraphic styles and also used different calligraphic styles depending on the content. Also, since the new commonly used calligraphic styles found in the practice slips have calligraphic features in common with Shaanxi-type Zhenmuping and Dongpailou Houhan Jiandu Shuxinjian, it can be said that the formulation of the new commonly used calligraphic styles was considerably advanced. At the same time, some of them were also seen learning stroke and dot, indicating that they were aware of the artistic aspect of protecting typicality. Therefore, behind the formulation of new commonly used calligraphic styles, we can assume a normative awareness to consider them as a single calligraphic style and an aesthetic awareness to protect a certain type of typicality.

  Although it is difficult to discuss the formulation of new commonly used calligraphic styles only with the practice slips because of the significant material limitations of the slips, the results of this paper can be considered as supporting evidence for the formulation of new commonly used calligraphic styles.

  “Chokusen-no-ho” in the collection of Tayasu Bunko, National Institute of Japanese Literature, is a Jimyoin- jubokudō densho describing the calligraphic style used in copying the Kokin wakashū(Collection of Ancient and Modern Japanese Poetry). It provides specific guidelines on the number of Chinese characters to be included along with kana when writing waka poems and how to write them, as well as the layout of the characters and the number of letters. The purpose of this paper is to examine the “Chokusen-no-ho” and its variant manuscripts, to understand what the calligraphers and their students have focused on, and to clarify some of the changes in the writing style of the ancient manuscripts of kokin wakashu(Kokin wakashu Ko-shahon).

  As a result of the study, we confirmed that several Jubokudō Densho contain descriptions of writing style (number of lines and number of consecutive Chinese characters). Some of the later Jubokudō Densho were found to be highly reproducible by the people to whom they were handed down, such as those with a template, which shows how much importance was attached to the Chokusenshū style of writing. What is noteworthy is the instruction for cases where a single line cannot contain an entire poem. If the end of a line break in a poem ends (“Motokusa”) in more than five characters, it requires the selection of “Mana” and limits the number of consecutive Chinese characters to no more than five. However, “Kanataru-moji” (e.g., spring, summer, fall, winter) can be used consecutively for the “Mana.”

  In the second half of this paper, we have confirmed that there is no discrepancy between the descriptions in the densho and the actual writings. Using Jimyoin Motosada's “Kokin wakashū” as an example, we reported that it is consistent with the descriptions in “Chokusen-no-ho,” and argued that it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that these writing styles probably occurred in connection with changes in the writing style and number of lines in Kokin wakashū, which was transcribed from the Middle Ages to the early modern period.

  Three of Wang Xizhi's imitating copies in the second half of Akihagijô are included in Chinese model calligraphies copybook. By comparing them and referring to the relevant literature, I estimate the shape of the original and the transmission route of the rubbed copies of the original from Japan to China.

  1. The “De danyangshu-tie” and “Xiang qinghe shiren jia-tie” from the imitating copies of Wang Xizhi's Akihagijô, are included in the Dongshutangjigu fatie of Yongle 14 (1416) in the reverse order of the Akihagijô, but consecutively. They also have the same line order and character layout. The Hanxiangguan Fashu, completed in Kangxi 14 (1675), contains the “Chongxi-tie,” which shows a high degree of similarity to the Akihagijō. This comparison suggests that the imitating copies of Wang Xizhi's Akihagijô are relatively faithful copies that retain the form of the Wang Xizhi copies of the Tang dynasty quite well.

  2. The direct original of all three copies is most likely the Chunxibige fatie of Nansong.

  3. Since the four copies traces of which were left in China—including the “Gaozhen-tie,” contained in the Xuanheshupu—were found to continue from the end of the “Akihagijô,” it can be assumed that the four copies were transmitted together until the Song period.

  4. The original of the imitating copies of Wang Xizhi's Akihagijô is assumed to be a Tang period copy in two volumes. It is divided into 22 and 35 lines. This is similar to the number of lines and the number of included copies in the Wang Xizhi copy of the scrolls in the Tang dynasty court after Kaiyuan 5 (717), which can be assumed from the Shôsôin kenmotutyô and the Fashuyaolu.

  5. Since the Huainanzi on the reverse side of the paper shows no sign of Bihui, there are many theories as to the period and place of production. However, given the absence of Bihui in the Dunhuang manuscript, it can be assumed that it is a Tang period abridged copy, even if there is no Bihui in Huainanzi.

  To date, the “Huachanshi Studio's Essays” compiled by his successors has been widely used to elucidate Dong Qichang's (1555-1636) views on calligraphy and painting. However, there are many unclear points regarding the source, compilation status, and date of establishment of this document, making it necessary to consider its reliability. This paper dealt with volume 1 of this document, which discusses calligraphy, and examined the above issues by comparing it with his manuscripts and copybooks, his descendant's compilation “Rongtaibieji” (first edition, 1630), and an abridged copy (1663) by Zha Shibiao (1615-1698) of Dong Qichang's “Theories on calligraphy and painting, running script” (1591, in the collection of National Palace Museum, Beijing).

  Regarding the sources of “Huachanshi Studio's Essays,” it was confirmed that there are those directly quoted from his manuscripts and copybooks (or related materials) and those directly quoted from “Rongtaibieji” (or related materials), with the former being the most common.

  In terms of the compilation process, it is assumed that the editors of this document edited the material they were able to collect without losing too much of the coherence of the original source material and by eliminating Dong Qichang's frank statements and duplicated descriptions. It is also assumed that the amount and consistency of the content was taken into consideration, and the existence of a specific intention on the part of the editors could not be confirmed.

  As for the date of establishment of the document, since there are descriptions in Zha Shibiao abridgment that are not found in this document or the current “Theories on calligraphy and painting, running script,” it is assumed that “Theories on calligraphy and painting, running script” was partially lost in the past, Zha Shibiao abridgment was written before that, and this document was quoted and established after that time. Considering the existence of the earliest existing copy of this document, Wang Rulu's published book (dated 1678), it is believed that at least the first volume of this document was produced between 1663 and 1678.

  Senro Kawai (1871-1945) studied seal carving under Kaishin Shinoda, and later went to Qing to study directly under Wu Changshuo. His style, based on and created in accordance with the ancient Chinese imperial seals, the Han seals, and the seal-carving techniques of the Qing dynasty (Zhe School/Deng School), continues to exert great influence as one of the guiding principles for later carvers to follow. He was also well versed in epigraphy, grammatology, appraisal of calligraphy, and painting, and is considered one of the most outstanding modern Japanese carvers.

  In the course of the study, the author divides the transition of Senro's style in seal carving into four periods. The first is the period of Senro's acceptance of the Zhe School style from the age of 19 to 24. The second period is from the age of 25 to 37, when the influence of Chinese classics, especially the noble families of the Qing Dynasty belonging to the Deng School lineage, was strong. The third period is from the age of 38 to 49, in which the pre-Han classics were used as a foundation, and the characteristics of the classics that had been accepted up to that time were integrated. And the fourth period is from the age of 50 to the time of his death at the age of 75, the period of his later years.

  This paper discusses Senro's work in the third period in order to reexamine the conventional theory that his work was at its “zenith” at the age of 47. The age of 38 was a transitional period in which Senro sought a new stylistic direction, and from the age of 39 he explored more universal expressions of seal carving, focusing on the acceptance of the pre-Han classics. At the age of 40, he established a new style that did not stop at imitating or following the noble families in the Qing dynasty, and in his 40s, he worked to cultivate this style, creating works that were equally excellent in workmanship but different in style. Senro's uniqueness in this period includes the use of horizontal lines that turn upward toward the center of the line and downward toward the end of the stroke, inward curves of pairs of vertical lines, folds that bend after accumulating strength, and the contrasting use of rounded and angular parts, all of these expressions as if written with a brush used in seal carving.