The author made a geographical field survey in Northwestern India as a member of the research team organized by the University of Hiroshima during the period from September 1972 to January 1973.
The purpose of this paper is to elucidate the geomorphic history, tectonic movement and the sequence of climatic changes in the Punjab Plains and the northern part of the Thar Desert.
The results obtained may be summarized as follows :
1) The three physiographic divisions of alluvial plains are based on the characteristics of the surface features : dissected piedmont plain, alluvial upland and alluvial lowland (Fig. 1). The alluvial lowland is divided into two geomorphic units : active flood plain and abandoned flood plain. Abandoned flood plain in developed parallel to the river courses and is three metres higher than the active flood plain. It is often inundated by high floods. The alluvial upland is bordered by steep scarps, with relative heights of 1.5-12 metres above abandoned flood plain. Radiocarbon date on fossil shells suggests that the dissection of the alluvial upland has taken place within at most the last 4, 000 years.
2) The flat alluvial plains of the Punjab in India have been formed by the deposition of the Indo-Gangetic alluvium, of which maximum thickness amounts to 300 metres above the basal rocks of the Siwalik Systems. The alluvial complex of the Pleistocene and Holocene age consists of fine to coarse sand, silt and clay. The recognition of paleosols and calcium carbonate deposits (kankar) allows the classification of the alluvial complex into three formations, which are upper, middle and lower alluvium.
The rate of sedimentation of alluvial deposits are estimeted at 0.25-0.33 mm per year in Ludhiana district in the Punjab Malwa. The upper formation may be correlated with the Holocene based on this calculation (Table 1). The fossil shells mentioned above in the clay (UCL) of the upper formation constituting a top layer of alluvial upland give a radiocarbon date (GaK-5838) of 4, 300±150 years B.P. Radiocarbon dating appears to support this calculation.
3) Deformed alluvium shows the folded structure with the axis of NW-SE direction about 40 km in length parallel to the axis of folded structure of the Siwalik Hills in the Punjab Malwa and Bist doab. It seems that this tectonic movement has been continuous since the middle Pleistocene. It may be evidence for the tectonic movement that the distribution of saline soils and drainage patterns of Whitebein River coincide with the axis of cryptsyncline.
4) Riverine sand dunes are extensively distributed on the alluvial upland in the Punjab Malwa. These riverine sand dunes were formed along the channel scars of the Sutlej River. On the other hand, sand dunes develop very seldom in the Kurukshetra Plain. This may reflect the difference in geology of the drainage areas in the upper reaches of the Sutlej and the Yamuna River.
The distributional patterns of sand dunes and channel scars show the following : the Sutlej River has been shifting toward NW direction and Yamuna River shifting toward SE direction. As a result of the shifting of the river course of the Sutlej or the Yamuna, Kalibangan and the other settlements in the Indus Culture along the abandoned river course deserted about 3, 700 years ago. These shiftings may be caused by the tectonic movement in the Punjab Malwa and the Kurukshetra Plain. The riverine sand dunes are divided into two systems : fixed sand dunes and active sand dunes. The active sand dunes have been formed on the fixed sand dunes by modern cultivation since the 19 th Century. The buried animal bone which was exhumed from a buried trench cutting into the fixed sand dunes gives a radiocarbone date (N-2233) of 435±115 years B.P. This fixed sand dune is overlain the active dund sand 3 metres thick.

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The Punjab is the area where the perennial irrigation canals of large-scale were first constructed in the Subcontinent of India. It is indeed true that the larger part of the Punjab has been benefited by the canal networks, while, the area was confronted with a rapid rising of the ground water table, with the result of waterlogging and salinity of fertile land. The serious rising of the water table came to be stabilized with the decrease of rainfall and a series of anti-waterlogging ameliorations, such as the excavation of drains and the boring of tubewells in the first half of the 1960's. With the development of the “green revolution”, tubewells were bored in increasing number and this has resulted in lowering of the water table in certain areas.
This paper aims to discuss such a water problem in the Punjab in the light of behaviour of hydrologic cycle. The author points out that little understanding of hydrologic cycle of surface and ground water in the time of water use has caused the above water problem.
The results obtained may be summarized as follows :
1) In the natural environment existed before the inception of perennial canal irrigation, the system of hydrologic cycle in the Punjab was characterized by a considerable deep level of ground water, most of which were recharged by the influent seepage from river to the doab. In such deep ground water areas of the doab, the water of heavy showers in August and early September were almost lost by the manners of surface run-off and evapotranspiration and rarely reached to ground water table through the soil and aeration zones.
2) The rising of water table caused by canal irrigations has greatly modified the linkages of hydrologic cycle. That is, vertical transfers of water between the surface and the ground water storages has become actively and resulted in the increase of evapotranspiration. And the lateral transfer of water from river to the doab has turned the outfluent from the doab to river.
3) Irrigation tracts in the Punjab can be grouped into two types in the light of mode of fluctuation of ground water table. In the first group (UBDC, SC-A, FC), the water table was rised by 0.10-0.13 meter/year from 1942 to 1955 and has been stabilized at 2.0-3.5 meters below the surface since 1956. In the second group (SC-B, WYC-B), the water table has been continuously rised by 1.55-0.65 meters/year since 1954 when the Bhakra Canal System was opened. Fluctuations of the water table of the first group can be divided into five stages. These modes and stages of fluctuation were discussed in connection with changed in rainfall and irrigation water managements.
4) Investigations were made into relationships between the fluctuation of water table and its controlling factors in UBDC. On the ground of the above investigations, calculation was made regarding the critical amount of rainfall and rainfall plus irrigation water, less than which the ground water table does not fluctuate. The critical amount of rainfall and rainfall plus irrigation water is 660 mm and 1, 216 mm in year, respectively. Based on these, irrigation water at the monsoon period should be controlled.
5) In the first group of irrigation tracts, where tubewells are intensively bored, the water table has turned the tendency of lowering in the latter half of the 1960's. Total decrease in amount of ground water storage calculated based on the above lowering on the above lowering are about 250 million cubic meter per year.
Therefore, it seems that pumping of the ground water by tubewells has already exceeded to the safe yield. The author advocates that a detail calculation of the water balance on irrigation tracts be made in order to make a well-balanced management of water and to prevent cultivators from the disorder of water use which would be caused by the over-lowering of the water table.

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１． はじめに

　近年、デリー首都圏を含む北インドでは、大気汚染が深刻な社会問題となっている。大気汚染の指標となるPM2.5濃度は、10月から翌3月までの乾季の間、基準値を大幅に超過し、住民の日常生活に支障をきたすだけでなく、健康被害を引き起こしている。大気汚染の原因は、工場の排煙や車の排気ガス、砂塵、気象条件、ディワーリーの祭りの花火などあるが、特に10月下旬から11月に首都圏の大気質を極端に悪化させる要因として、近隣州で行われる農業残渣物の焼却（以下、野焼き）があげられる。

　デリー首都圏に近接するインド北西部、ハリヤーナー州と

州では、1960年代末に始まった「緑の革命」以降、稲とコムギの二毛作が確立されたが、コムギの藁が家畜の飼料用に利用される一方で、稲藁は利用価値が乏しく、1980年代に大型のコンバインハーベスターが導入されると、収穫後の耕地に刈り残された稲株を、コムギ播種前に除去するために野焼きが行われるようになった。半乾燥地帯における穀物二毛作は、地下水資源の枯渇を招くことになり、2009年に州政府は6月10日以前の稲移植を禁止した。その結果、稲の栽培期間が後ろ倒しになり、稲の収穫からコムギの播種までの期間が短くなったことで、野焼きが急増する事態となった。

　農家に野焼きを止めさせるために、連邦政府・各州政府は、罰金付取り締まり、残渣物処理機械への補助金、稲以外の作物への転換など、さまざまな対策を講じてきた。しかし、野焼き発生源の特定は、主として人工衛星からの観測情報に頼っており、実際の発生件数・場所とは大きな差があることが既存研究で指摘されている。総合地球環境学研究所プロジェクト「大気浄化、公衆衛生および持続可能な農業を目指す学際研究（Aakash）」では、

州の野焼き削減方策を考えるために、農学、大気科学、公衆衛生学などの研究者が協力して、農家の社会経済的背景、野焼きと大気汚染の関係、大気汚染と健康被害の関係などを定量的・定性的に把握する研究を行っている。

２．研究手法

　本研究では、

州における野焼きの比率・地域性を推定するために、2022年1月から2月にかけて実施した、村落レベルの質問票調査①の結果を紹介する。州内の全150ブロックから各2村を選定して（全315村）、村の農業事情に詳しい代表者から、過去2年間のカリフ季（稲作）・ラビ季（コムギ／ジャガイモ）の栽培状況、残渣物処分状況、農業労働力、農業機械所有数などを聞き取った。また、2020年8月から2021年1月に、全22県で実施した世帯レベルの質問票調査②の結果も参照する。発表者は、2022年10月と2023年8月に現地を訪問し、農家より聞き取り調査を実施した。

３．結果

　質問票調査①で得られた、稲の作付面積から、燃やさずに播いたコムギの作付面積を差し引きすることで全315村の野焼き面積を推計したところ、

州内で明確な地域差がみられた。州北東部のDoaba地方では、農家世帯が少なく、稲作付面積も小さいことから、野焼き比率はもっとも低くなっており、州北西部のMajha地方は、農家世帯は多いものの、輸出用に手刈りで収穫されるバスマティ稲の作付比率が高いことから、野焼き比率は中程度にとどまっている。州南部のMalwa地方で特に野焼き比率が高くなっているが、この地域では稲の収穫日が遅く、コムギの播種までの日数がほとんどないことが明らかになった。質問調査②から、当該地域では、カリフ季の稲、ラビ季のコムギともに、高い単収を得るために栽培期間が長くなる晩生品種が栽培されており、収益の最大化を志向する農家の品種選択が野焼きを引き起こす原因であることが示唆された。また、現地での聞き取り調査からは、不安定な気象状況、残渣物処理機械の利用可能性、品種の入手可能性など、多くの要素が稲収穫からコムギ播種までの作業日数を左右しており、選択肢が少ない農家が野焼きせざるを得ない状況に置かれていることも分かってきた。

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Both the literacy rate and the educational level are very low, and the gender discrimination in the field of education is quite distressing in Pakistan. This paper aims to clarify the status quo of the female education in Pakistan. The research was made from 16th to 27th December, 2006, in Punjab State, Pakistan. Interviews were conducted at several schools there. The recent education policies in Pakistan aim to raise the percentage of female attendance in primary school and to improve the literacy rate of the female population. In fact, a great many women in rural districts have had no experience of going to school; the social activities of women have been traditionally restricted in many ways, which is considered as an impediment to female education in Pakistan. Under such circumstances, the efforts have been pushed forward to realize the literacy education programs in regional areas.

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インド半乾燥地域における農村の土地利用が,政府の農村開発計画の適用を受けてどのような変化を生じたかについて,デカン高原南部の2つの村を事例として実証的な検討を行なった.その1つイエルドナ村は, 1957年に大規模水路灌漑の恩恵を受けて以来,それまでの自給的な乾燥地農業から稲,ラッカセイなどの商品作物生産を中心とする近代的な灌漑農業へと著しい変貌を遂げ,村の人口は急増した.一方,独立以来,井戸掘削事業や等高線土堤事業など政府の諸計画を積極的に受け入れてきたビダラケレ村は,天水耕地においても安定した農業生産を確保するようになるとともに,タマネギなどの商品作物を組み合わせて,顕著な農業発展をみた.その結果,近年,人口は大幅に増加しつつある.
しかしながら,それぞれの村では,灌漑用水管理や農地管理の不合理から,湿性地や塩性地の拡大,ガリー侵食の加速化,地下水の枯渇といった土地生態系の破壊を生じつつある.また,商品作経営への急激な転換のために農民の階層分化が激化しつつあること,さらには急速な人口増加に伴い,村落自治能力が低下しつつあることなど,今後の農村開発を阻害しかねない多くの深刻な問題を抱え込んでいる.

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A Geographical research project was carried out by the members of Research Teams of the University of Hiroshima during the period between 1967 and 1973. The first field research was carried out in the Ganga Plain and the second on the Punjab both in North India. An extensive as well as an o intensive approach were applied.
A. GANGA PLAIN
A brief reference to the field study in settlements in the Ganga Plain will be made first. Major subjects for field research were as follows: (1) villages and agriculture, (2) rural central places, and (3) industrial towns. However, reference is to be made to the first subject alone in this paper. It may safely be concluded that the ricecultivating area in the Ganga Plain is characterized by peasants, peasant village and peasant agriculture. A ringshaped structure was noted with inner, intermediate and outlying land. It may be argued from the ring-shaped arrangement of land-zoning, from the customs of land use, from the villagers' sentimental attachment to different zones, and also from some documents, that the prototype of the ring-shaped structure was a twofold arrangement: an area of enclosed land and its periphery. Traditional and conservative land use were noted everywhere.
B. THE PUNJAB
The geographical field research in the Punjab was carried out from September 27, 1972 to January 31, 1973 on a similar basis to the above-mentioned research in the Ganga Plain. This project aimed at studying the characteristics of the village and the culture on one hand and at probing into ways of modernization and economic development on the other. It was also hoped that a study of the geography of the Punjab would lead us to an understanding of the geography of the dry tropics and also of Indian philosophy. The following research items were proposed: natural environment and land use; historical background; village morphology and function; land use and agriculture; industrialization.
An intensive sample study was made together with an extensive general study. Schedules and checklists were carefully prepared in advance and revised on the spot from time to time. Sample study villages were selected according to the following indices: (1) isopleth of aridity index 20, which separates the wet area from the arid zone; (2) the availability of previous studies; (3) villagers' readiness to co-operate with us in research; (4) facilities for accommodation. Thus, the following four villages were selected:
a. Lohna: A Peasants' and Tribesmen's hamlet using traditional agriculture in a humid valley in the Lower Himalayas.
b. Gaggar Bhana: A Typical Village in the Punjab Plains with Canal and Tube-well Irrigation Facilities.
c. Salmatpur: A Village in Ferment in Cho(torrent)-land without Canal Irrigation Facilities.
d. Mangali: A Village on the Marginal Land of the Dry Farming Area in the Semiarid Zone of Haryana.
It must be first noted that radical changes—transformation—are noted in the Punjab Plains. Major results of the field research may be summarized as follows:
1. Development of irrigation facilities. The Punjab Plains were famous for the early construction of irrigation canals on a large scale not only in the Indian subcontinent but also throughout the world. These irrigation facilities had paved way for the “wheat granary”. However, serious problems were caused by them: raising of the ground water level and particularly waterlogging. Fortunately these problems have been solved by the construction of drainage canal and tube-wells in recent times. Thus, many parts of the Punjab Plains have benefited from the irrigation and drainage facilities, which have paved the way for the “green revolution”. But there is some fear of a lowering of the ground water level by over-construction of tube-wells.
2. The less conservative character of the society.

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