[Introduction]Cognitive biases are difficult to evaluate because there are so many that exist. [Purpose] This study evaluated the efficacy of the “ Codex” for assessing diagnostic errors. [Methods]This was a cross-sectional observational study. Questionnaires were distributed to diagnostic error presenters at the meeting of the Japanese Society of Hospital General Medicine on September 14 and 15, 2019. Then, cases were divided into four groups:infection, vascular disease, tumor, and others. Cognitive biases were divided into four categories, including “too much information,” “not enough meaning,” “need to act fast,” and “what should we remember?”. [Results]Twenty-one respondents met the inclusion criteria. (Inclusion rate was 87.5%). “Need to act fast” was the most common affecting factor, while “too much information” was the least. Vascular disease had a different trend than infection and tumor. “What should we remember?” was much more common in the vascular group. [Discussion]The difference in trend may be because patients with vascular issues are more likely to require urgent attention after sudden onset. Future research into this may lead to emergency department-specific de-biasing if results are similar. [Conclusions]The “ Codex” can be used to effectively assess biases according to the given disease category.

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認知バイアスは，不安・抑うつの強い者が情報処理の過程で示す特定の偏り（バイアス）である。たとえば，抑うつの強い者は両義にとれるような曖昧な出来事を否定的に解釈する傾向にあったり，不安の強い者は否定的な刺激により注意を払いやすい傾向にあったりする。こうした傾向が著しい場合，うつ病や不安障害の発症・維持に密接に関与すると考えられてきた。この認知バイアスを緩和する「認知バイアス調整（CBM）アプローチ」は，従来の認知バイアス測定プログラムを改変して開発された，コンピュータに基づく新しい治療プログラムである。最近のメタ分析によりCBMは，不安や抑うつ症状を改善するうえで有効であったことが示されている。さらにCBMの効果は，プログラムのパラメータ設定（例：刺激の提示時間や種類）によって大きく影響されることも示されている。そこで本稿では，認知バイアス測定プログラムの精緻化および効果的なCBMプログラムの開発を目指し，最近報告された複数のメタ分析の知見を基に，認知バイアスを検出あるいは緩和するうえで最適なパラメータ設定を整理することを目的とする。

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In recent disasters, there have been many cases that people failed to escape despite evacuation advisories or did not make appropriate preparations in advance. One of the possible causes is the influence of

. However, countermeasures against have not been developed in community disaster management. In this study, we developed a training tool in the form of web application software to overcome by acquiring knowledge about possible in response to volcanic disasters and discussing countermeasures with community members. The effectiveness of the tool was verified in workshops held in Fujiyoshida City. This training tool allows residents to conduct training on their own using a video conferencing system.

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Ninety-six university students (66 males and 30 females) responded to four short problems associated with one of the following three cognitive biases: Representativeness, availability, and inappropriate diagnostic reasoning. The subjects either worked on the problems individually or as members of four-person groups, discussing the problems in order to reach group judgments. Social Decision Scheme Theory (Davis, 1973) was used to test six hypothesized group consensus processes. Results showed that the best fitting Social Decision Schemes varied across tasks, ranging from “truth-supported wins”(a process that leads groups to increased performance) to “bias wins”(a process that leads groups to a higher proportion of biased decisions).

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Symmetric cognitive biases are human inferences that induce "q given p" from condition "p given q". LS model represents these human tendencies in human-like decision-making, which had been proven a great performance in the n-armed bandit problem. In the previous study, we proved it effective in robot motion learning as well by simulation. In this study, we verified the effectiveness by using a real giant-swing robot which we made.

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　前頭葉機能を理解する神経心理学的理論として、行動抑制（behavior inhibition）とワーキングメモリ（working memory）、そして実行機能（executive function）が提唱されている。このような前頭葉機能を簡便で短時間に試行可能な検査法としてfrontal assessment battery at bedside （FAB）、 task（CBT）が成人を対象に報告されている。我々は、健常小児とADHD児を対象にFAB、CBTを小児用に修正し施行した。FAB総合点数は、健常児において年齢依存性に増加し、10歳以降で急激な上昇を認めた。ADHD児では有意に低かった。CBTは、健常児において15歳頃成人レベルに達した。年齢に伴い右前頭葉機能である文脈非依存性理論から左前頭葉機能である文脈依存性理論へシフトしていくものと考えられる。ADHD児は健常児の同年齢に比して文脈非依存性論理であった。長期的報酬予測における情動の影響を検討するため、強化学習課題であるMarkov decision task施行中の交感神経皮膚反応（SSR）を測定したところ、適切な行動選択を学習するためには事象に伴う情動表出が不可欠であることが確認された。

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行動経済学において、確率的に発生する事象に対して人の認知が介入する場合、その認知する内容によって確率を偏って認識してしまう「認知バイアス」が存在することが知られている。 この認知バイアスの原因について分析するには、認知バイアスの介在しない「客観確率」と介在している「主観確率」の比較を行うことが一般的な手法である。しかし客観確率が推定できる事象はほとんどなく、従前の研究では認知バイアスの介在が少ない主観確率を統計的計算のもとで客観確率として扱うことで分析が行われている。 また最近ではこれまでの統計的なアプローチに対し、入力特徴量を選別することでより客観確率に近い学習器が作成可能であることが示されている。しかし入力特徴量を選別するという点において認知バイアスが介入する余地が存在してしまう。 そこで本研究では、学習器がどの程度客観確率を算出できているかの度合いを示す量を損失関数として学習に取り込むことで、より認知バイアスが介入しない学習器を作成できることを示す。そしてこの手法を用いた学習器で定量的な分析を行うことができることを議論する。

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Objective The etiologies of diagnostic errors among internal medicine physicians are unclear. To understand the causes and characteristics of diagnostic errors through reflection by those involved in them.

Methods We conducted a cross-sectional study using a web-based questionnaire in Japan in January 2019. Over a 10-day period, a total of 2,220 participants agreed to participate in the study, of whom 687 internists were included in the final analysis. Participants were asked about their most memorable diagnostic error cases, in which the time course, situational factors, and psychosocial context could be most vividly recalled and where the participant provided care. We categorized diagnostic errors and identified contributing factors (i.e., situational factors, data collection/interpretation factors, and cognitive biases).

Results Two-thirds of the identified diagnostic errors occurred in the clinic or emergency department. Errors were most frequently categorized as wrong diagnoses, followed by delayed and missed diagnoses. Errors most often involved diagnoses related to malignancy, circulatory system disorders, or infectious diseases. Situational factors were the most cited error cause, followed by data collection factors and

. Common situational factors included limited consultation during office hours and weekends and barriers that prevented consultation with a supervisor or another department.

Conclusion Internists reported situational factors as a significant cause of diagnostic errors. Other factors, such as cognitive biases, were also evident, although the difference in clinical settings may have influenced the proportions of the etiologies of the errors that were observed. Furthermore, wrong, delayed, and missed diagnoses may have distinctive associated cognitive biases.

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うつ病の認知心理モデルによると，うつ病患者において，健常人で認めるポジティブな認知バイアスが消失することや（抑うつの現実主義と呼ばれる），否定的に捉える負の認知バイアスが生じることが，抑うつ症状の悪化や治療抵抗性に関与している可能性が指摘されている。本稿では，自己と他者の評価に対する認知バイアスが脳内で生じる仕組みについて，機能的脳画像（functional magnetic resonance imaging：fMRI）と陽電子放射断層撮影装置（positron emission tomography：PET）を用いた研究を紹介し，うつ病症候に関わる認知バイアスの脳機能ネットワークとドーパミン神経伝達機能との関連について考察する。

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【目的】本研究では，小学校高学年児童を対象とした心の減災教育プログラムの妥当性を検証するために，呼吸法対処効力感，認知の修正，対人的信頼感の関連について検証することを目的とした。

【方法】小学5, 6年生を対象として，心の減災教育プログラム実施前後に質問紙調査を行い，呼吸法対処効力感，認知の修正，対人的信頼感について225名のデータを分析した。

【結果】事後調査において，呼吸法対処効力感は認知の修正に有意な正の影響を与え，認知の修正は対人的信頼感に有意な正の影響を与えていた。対人的信頼感は呼吸法対処効力感と認知の修正に有意な正の影響を示していた。

【考察】本結果より，生理学的側面からのセルフコントロールである呼吸法対処ができるという自信が，認知的側面からのセルフコントロールである認知の修正を促し，この認知の修正が対人的信頼感に寄与できたと考えられる。また，対人的信頼感が向上することで，呼吸法対処効力感や認知の修正をもさらに促進していることが明らかとなり，心理教育プログラムの妥当性が支持された。

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Humans tend to make illogical inferences, that is, after 'if A then B' (AB) relation was learned, subjects readily infer 'A' from 'B' (BA relation), which animals rarely exhibit. Such an illogical, although not necessarily wrong, may be essential to human highly intelligent functions including language faculty. In this study, we conducted an fMRI experiment to investigate the neuronal correlates of such illogical inference. The subjects were trained with five sets of AB and BC relations to reach the criteria of 90% accuracy before the MRI scans. During scan sessions, subjects were tested with, in addition to trained relations, four untrained and emergent relations; illogical relations of symmetry (BA and CB), their combination (CA), and a logical relation of transitivity (AC). Behaviorally, correct rate were significantly higher than chance level in all emergent relations. Imaging result detected activities in the brain areas both distinctive and common for logical and illogical inferences. The left anterior PFC was activated for logical AC inference, which may contribute to combination of trained relations. The posterior cingulate cortex was activated only for illogical CA inference, which may be involved in the combination of symmetrically emergent relations. The commonly activated areas, right PFC, medial frontal cortex and intraparietal area, may be involved in the process of an abstract category formation which should be made by manipulating relational orders and the categorical discrimination based on the emergent relations. [J Physiol Sci. 2008;58 Suppl:S144]

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Causal induction about contingency information has been the subject of debates, between the power PC theory, associative learning theory, and symmetry bias theory. Whereas most researchers in the subject area agree that is normative induction process overestimating particular cause-effect associations, the question remains how the is originated in humans' behaviors. This article offers a dynamical logic called ad-hoc logic, based on a lattice (topped intersection structure), that is continuously removing and/or adding its own elements. The ad-hoc logic implements the negotiation process between the system of representations (type) and that of objects (token). The asymmetry between types and tokens embedded in the ad-hoc logic can paradoxically lead to symmetry bias. The model is consistent with experimental results of causal judgments in literature.

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In order to find clues to save as many lives as possible in the event of a natural disaster, this study investigated how the Big Five traits (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience, extroversion) and cognitive biases (myopia bias, forgetting bias, optimism bias, inertia bias, simplification bias, majority bias) affect natural disaster prevention awareness and natural disaster prevention behavior during normal times and natural disasters. Correlation analysis showed significant negative correlations between agreeableness and forgetfulness, conscientiousness and optimism, and openness and simplification. On the other hand, as a result of multiple regression analysis, conscientiousness was the only Big Five characteristic that affected natural disaster prevention awareness during normal times and natural disasters. In addition, it was clarified that forgetfulness, optimism, and simplification tended to negatively affect natural disaster preparedness awareness both during normal times and during natural disasters, and inertia only during natural disasters.

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Reinforcement learning models, which update the value related to a specific behaviour according to a reward prediction error, have been used to model the choice behaviour in organisms. Recently, the magnitude of the learning rate has been reported to be biased depending on the sign of the reward prediction error. A previous study concluded that these asymmetric learning rates reflect positivity and confirmation biases. However, another study reported that the tendency to repeat the same choice (perseverance) leads to pseudo asymmetric learning rates. Therefore, this study aimed to clarify whether asymmetric learning rates are the result of

or perseverance by reanalysing the open data that the previous study obtained from two different types of learning tasks. To accomplish this, we evaluated multiple reinforcement learning models, including asymmetric learning rate models, perseverance models and hybrid models. The results showed that the choice data associated with positivity bias were also explained by the perseverance model with symmetric learning rates. Meanwhile, the data associated with confirmation bias were not explained by the perseverance model. These results suggest the possibility that either or perseverance could explain asymmetric learning rates depending on the contextual information of learning task.

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Objective: This study aimed to explore the efficacy of metacognitive training (MCT) with long-term hospitalized patients with schizophrenia.

Methods: Patients admitted to a hospital's long-term care ward were randomly allocated to Groups A or B, and a crossover trial was performed. As intervention, 16 weekly MCT sessions were performed for 4 months as part of standard occupational therapy, and the participants' cognitive functioning, psychiatric symptoms, overall functioning, and

were assessed at baseline, 4 months later, and 8 months later.

Results: Twenty-two patients participated. Those who were discharged midway through the course, and those who withdrew their consent were excluded, and 17 individuals (Group A: n = 9; Group B, n = 8) completed their assessments 8 months later. No significant differences were seen in inter-group comparisons of the scores of various scales at the baseline. Four months and eight months later, a comparison between before and after MCT showed improvement tendencies for both groups in the participants' cognitive function and psychiatric symptoms. A comparison of scores before and after the MCT intervention period, from all participants, showed significant improvement tendencies in their verbal memory and attention.

Conclusion: MCT can be used for long-term hospitalization in patients with chronic-stage schizophrenia, and this study showed its potential to improve neurocognitive function. Going forward, there is a need to increase the sample size and examine the efficacy of MCT in more detail.

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社交不安が強い人は，あいまいな対人場面をネガティブに解釈しやすいといわれる。解釈バイアス修正課題（CBM-I:

modification for interpretation）は，そのようなバイアスを低減するといわれる。本研究では，大学生を対象に，2つのタイプのCBM-I （文章課題，写真課題） を複数回実施し，課題直後の気分（ポジティブ感情，ネガティブ感情）や，前後の社交不安症状に与える影響を検討した。

大学生120名を対象に，Webサイト上で7日間にわたって2つの解釈バイアス修正課題（寺島・髙野，2016）を実施した。文章課題は，あいまいな対人場面のシナリオ文章を視覚呈示し，その場面をイメージした上で，ポジティブな結末を呈示した（1，3，5，7日目：毎回23場面）。写真課題は，写真とポジティブ語（単語）を対呈示した（2，4，6日目：毎回50場面）。どちらの課題でも刺激呈示後にイメージの鮮明度を評価してもらった。毎回の課題終了後に気分を回答した。

文章課題と写真課題が気分に与える影響について分析を行った。その後，各課題の刺激について分析を行い，社交不安の高い人がイメージしやすい刺激を明らかにした。

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