Studies on the evolution of human bipedal locomotion from the perspectives of biomechanics and functional anatomy have played an important role in Japanese anthropology. This article reviews the history of such studies, focusing primarily on research carried out in Japan, with references to studies outside Japan only when necessary. Earlier reviews were provided by Okada (1983) and Kimura (1983); therefore, the present review mainly covers studies published after 1983. The studies reviewed in this article are organized into three main themes; 1) the acquisition and evolutionary process of human bipedalism, including investigations of bipedal walking in nonhuman primates; 2) biomechanical characteristics of primate quadrupedal locomotion, both on horizontal substrates and in three-dimensional arboreal environments; and 3) the biomechanics and the functional anatomy of the musculoskeletal system, including soft tissues such as muscles and ligaments, which have been more actively investigated since the 1980s. Progress in this field has been greatly facilitated by advances in measurement and analytical techniques. While these studies have substantially improved our understanding of primate locomotion, including that of humans, fundamental questions remain unresolved, particularly concerning the origin of human erect bipedalism.

This review article focuses on the early days of paleopathology in Japan and the subsequent history of active, creative paleopathological research. The history of paleopathology in Japan dates back more than 130 years, with the earliest publication, by Yoshikiyo Koganei in 1894, focusing on syphilitic bone changes in Ainu skeletal remains. Early anthropological researchers in Japan introduced the term “paleopathology”. They described many cases of fractures and traumatic lesions found mainly in the skeletal remains of people called “Stone Age People,” now recognized as the Jomon and Yayoi people.

After World War II, during the 1950s to 1960s, paleopathology in Japan was marked by an emphasis on trauma related to the social transition from the Jomon hunter-gatherer to the Yayoi agricultural economy. After the 1970s, paleopathology in Japan has extended beyond exploring trauma to a broad spectrum of pathological conditions, including malignant bone tumors and specific infectious diseases affecting bone, particularly tuberculosis, syphilis, and leprosy. Furthermore, congenital diseases, degenerative diseases represented osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and other associated with aging, and various “stress makers” appearing in the bones.

Since 2000, new areas of paleopathology have emerged, including not only macroscopic observations but also various imaging diagnostics, DNA analysis of pathogens, and the use of stable isotopes to elucidate interactions between environmental factors and disease.