This paper aims to clarify the significance of business improvement districts (BIDs) as geographical analysis units in contemporary North American cities. The BID model is an urban revitalization policy at the neighbourhood level; it is formulated by local stakeholders paying self-imposed levies but carried out in partnership with the city government. The thirty largest cities in Canada and the U.S. were examined for adoption of the urban policy through an Internet-based survey. In Toronto, the birthplace of BIDs, fieldwork was conducted in traditional ethnic neighbourhoods from 2012 through 2015. Following the initiation in Toronto in 1970, BIDs diffused into Canada’s major cities by the 1980s and into most of the U.S. after the 1990s. Toronto’s BID model is the most developed compared to that of other cities; the number of BIDs reached 31 in 1987 and has now grown to 81—the highest in North America. In the 1980s, ethnic BIDs, named after ethnic groups by local entrepreneurs and property owners in an ethnic neighbourhood, proliferated rapidly. The emergence of ethnic BIDs indicates a change in the way in which ethnic minorities are viewed in mainstream society. They reflect Canada’s policy shift to bilingualism and multiculturalism in 1971. In ethnic BIDs, although ethnic branding that commodifies ethnicity could be found, success related to ethnic branding is dependent primarily on the composition of the BID board and its chair, all of whom are locals. By focusing on local actors, BIDs are keys to better understanding today’s North American cities on a neighbourhood scale.

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[in Japanese]

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The purpose of this study is to analyze the spatial pattern of the backpacker area in Hochiminh City. In summary as follows: Firstly, the backpacker area had been located close to the old Saigon railway station. Secondly, the human landscape of main streets in the backpacker area is respectively characterized by different occupational patterns. Thirdly, each feature of roads in this area has been reflected in the process of urban development in Hochiminh City. In conclusion, the backpacker area in Hochiminh City is not identified with an enclave as a homogeneous space, but with the differential urban space according to each own occupational patterns in the streets.

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Presently in developed countries, such as Japan, the most important function of rural areas is still food production; however, since the 1990s there has been a sharp increase in using and consuming rural resources in different ways. Such a phenomenon can be regarded as the "commodification of rural spaces". Since present rural spaces are strongly influenced by commodification, it is important to clarify in what way the commodification of rural spaces has been promoted, and how rural commodification characterizes rural spaces, in order to understand characteristics of present rural areas in economically advanced countries. We have studied the characteristics of the commodification of rural spaces in Japan over the past ten years. By expanding this research theme to British Columbia, Canada, our geographical perspectives on present rural areas will widen and develop. This study examines the characteristics of commodified rural spaces in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia. The Lower Mainland is a vernacular region but for the purpose of this study is defined as the plain that extends along the lower Fraser River, from downtown Vancouver to 120km east of the city. This is a highly productive agricultural area in which approximately 60 percent of the population of British Columbia is concentrated. There are diversified rural commodities in the Lower Mainland. Heritage tourism, wine tourism, pick-your-own farms, tourist farms are common. It is also popular for urban residents to live in the countryside, which has led to the development of scattered estate homes. Some people have hobby farms on which they raise horses and enjoy horseback riding on Sunday mornings. A unique example of agri-tourism in the Lower Mainland is the Circle Farm Tour, which is a self-guided tour, allowing visitors to explore the rural attractions in the Lower Fraser Valley at their own pace (Hayden, 2015). This was started by the District of Kent for Agassiz/Harrison Mills in 2003 and was later followed by Abbotsford, Chilliwack, Langley and Maple Ridge/Pitt Meadows. In this paper we mainly focus on the Circle Farm Tour in Abbotsford. The program’s “roadmap” presents a wide range of high-quality rural attractions, including farm produce markets and shops, tourist farms, pick-your-own farms, wineries, restaurants, garden centres, and other facilities. Based on our interviews with agri-tourism operations and an analysis of their websites, we can find important themes for rural tourist attractions, such as the beautiful landscape, favourable natural environments, family-oriented places, fresh and high quality rural products, family farms and their histories, local products, ecological practices, and a strong connection with local communities. In this region residents from greater Vancouver, Victoria and other nearby cities visit on weekends to enjoy and consume rurality. The commodification of rural spaces in British Columbia, especially those in the Lower Mainland, is much more advanced and diversified than that of Japan, and plays an important role in sustaining rural economies and societies.

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This study examines the characteristics of farm direct marketing in British Columbia, Canada, focusing on the distribution of farms, types of commodities, methods of production and sale by farms. The farms that conduct farm direct marketing are distributed mainly in the suburbs and the urban fringe of Vancouver. The area is a horticultural zone extending along the lower stream of the Fraser River, in which the number of farm direct marketing has increased since the late 1990s. Though commodities are diverse, the management can be classified basically into four types; fruits (mainly berries), vegetables (including flowers and nurseries), livestock and poultry products, and farm stores. Though the area of farm land is not large, many versatile mangers of second generation engage in the management. They advertise the products as "fresh, local and safety", and inform the season of harvest to repeaters by using of Facebook. The farm operation is under the pressure of urban land-use, however, there is a possibility of growing because it is supported by a constant demand for local food by urban residents, and a positive image of rural areas.

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This study reveals the development of wineries and its impact on rural commodification in Cowichan Valley in Vancouver Island, Canada. Wineries of Cowichan valley (total of 16) could be categorized as large-scale, medium-scale and small-scale wineries by the vineyard acreage. Mutual interdependency among wineries from small-scale to large-scale has largely impacted on its strong brand image and competitiveness in wine production regions through the development of wine tourism. Further, interconnections between wineries and local farms have resulted in the slow-food movement and the development of rural tourism, which could be identified as the core to the expansion of rural commodification. Weekly held farmers’ market has played a key role in creating close interactions between wineries and farms. Wineries of Cowichan valley originated as result of farmland acquisitions and wine productions by new farmers who longed for a rural and agricultural life. Their strong preferences and passion for wine and networking has triggered the commodification of rural space in the area.

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Okanagan Valley in the interior of the province of British Columbia came to be known as the major wine making region in Canada at the close of the twentieth century. I attempted to scrutinize the development process of a wine region by focusing on wine tourism. Special attention was paid to the Kelowna area that constitutes the core of the Okanagan Valley wine region, where thirty-two wineries are located. Characteristics of wineries and proprietors, types of wine tourism, and land use changes were analyzed. A variety of people from different countries with different occupational backgrounds participate in the wine making and winery management. Provincial and local governments contribute to wine tourism by operating a tourist information center, publishing brochures, and supporting a wine museum. New wineries are opened and new attempts are made in wine making. Considering the continued population growth of the region and the appreciation of Okanagan wines suggest that further development of wine industry and wine tourism are expected.

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