Whatever is called "arithmetic" in our present system of school education is "yozan" (western arithmetic). This dates back to 1872, when it took the place of "wazan" (Japanese arithmetic) which is quite peculiar to our country. The present thesis is intended as a brief inquiry into the process of the pervasion of yozan in our school system. Yozan came to be known in Japan as early as the first half of 18th century, in close connection with the coming of the western knowledges of astronomy, tactics and so on. But it was mainly via China through the Chinese translations. The visit of American warships in 1853 was really an epoch-making event in the history of yozan in Japan. Yozan, which had been considered only as useful against the crisis of the domestic economy, came to be regarded as "necessary" for surmounting the diplomatic crisis. It is only then that the systematic teaching of yozan began in our country. It was launched out at the Nagasaki Naval Academy (1855-59), where yozan was regarded as the most important basic knowledge for all military sciences. In Hanko (educational institution for the military class), there had been a tendency toward neglecting arithmetic, even wazan. But as the problem of national defense became urgent after the visit of the American warships, yozan began to be taught at some Hanko. To most Terakoya (private school for the lower class), however, yozan gave no great influence worth mentioning, except a few where it was taught in compliance with the pupils' request. Though yozan had thus given quite a limited influence on our school education, it was decided in 1872 in the code entitled "Gakusei" that only yozan should be taught as "arithmetic" at every school in Japan. The aim of Gakusei was, first of all, the rapid growth of Japan into one of the advanced countries. In this sense, it seems natural that we have accepted yozan as our only "arithmetic", following other advanced countries. But it shouldn't be regarded only as a matter of imitation. The largest motive of our having accepted yozan lay in the then urgent desire for the increase of our defensive power which is eloquently expressed in the active attitude of the Nagasaki Naval Academy toward the introduction of tactics. Preference of yozan to wazan came in fact more from the need of national defense than from any academic comparison between them. In other words, the western knowledge which was indispensable in our national defense couldn't be learned efficiently without western methods of calculation and description. "The western arithmetic for learning the western knowledge" this was what made us prefer yozan to our old wazan.

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The purpose of this analysis is to trace the rising process of the percentage of school attendance of the Meiji Era, especially in connection with the socioeconomic structure. First, I examined the rising process of the percentage of school attendance of each prefecture, and pointed out a few features in this process. Next, this study is tried to analyze from the following points, 1st, how the growth of commodity production in agriculture regulates the percentage of school attendance, 2nd, how the development of the parasitic-landlord does it, 3rd, how the capitalist production in industry does it. Through these analyses, four important phases are revealed. (1) The growth of commodity production in agriculture becomes the promoting factor to raise the percentage of school attendance, that is, commodity production in agriculture regulated the percentage in such a way that the higher the rate of commodity production, the higher the percentage of school attendance, and vice versa. (2) The development of the parasitic-landlord becomes the restraining factor to raise the percentage of school attendance, that is, the parasitic-landlord regulated the percentage in such a way that the higher the rate of a tenant's land, the lower the percentage of school attendance, and vice versa. (3) The growth of the capitalist production in industry becomes the fundamental lever to raise the percentage of school attendance, but on the other hand it also becomes the restraining factor by being in need of the increase of the poor and the existence of child labour, especially in its advanced district (city). (4) Finally, it must not be forgotten that people with the self-consciousness for "the necessity of education "or" the effects of education" which is regulated by the socio-economic factors above mentioned become to send their children to school.

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China opened her country to the world since she lost the Opium War, and it was the results of successive defeats in wars with foreign countries that she made up her mind to westernize herself. Reflecting again on the cause of her defeat in the Sino-Japanese War, she concluded that it was due to the achievement of Japan in the development of the National education and established foreign style schools one after another. She promulgated an educational system following that of Japan in 1902 and 1903 after the Boxer Uprising and established a system from primary school to the post-graduate course. In reference to physical education, the gist, the contents and the curriculums, everything was expressly provided. But before the system got under way the Ching Dynasty had fallen and the Republic of China was founded. The Republic of China promulgated, also, an educational system in 1912, modeled after that of Japan, but the circumstances in China did not allow to enforce the system fully. We can find stipulations for the object and facilities of the physical education in this educational programme. In 1922, a new educational system was adopted instead of the Japanese system. This is so-called 6.3.3. system following that of U.S.A. On account of continued civil war, this system did not come into force until Kuomintang could bring the country under its authority. After unification of country Nationalist Government reformed the 6.5.3. system to fit to the actual circumstances of China in 1928. Characteristics of this system are education based upon Dr. Sun Yat-sen's "Principles of the People", repletion of normal education, equality of the sexes in education and military training of students above the middle school. The educational laws and ordinances for scheels were put into force and standard of the curriculum was provided. It is matter of course that the detailed regulations were provided for the physical education. Since the Sino-Japanese Incident broke out, the Nationalist Government moved to the far interior and then moved to Formosa as they were beaten by the Communist forces. In accordance with the transition of circumstances, the standard of curriculum was reformed in 1942 and again in 1962. The object and contents of physical education, too, were not free from amendment as is in the actual form. The education of girls was started in 1907 but it is not certain whether physical education for girls was done at first as provided in the educational law and ordnances in spite of shortage of teachers and facilities for both sexes, or not.

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As is generally known, "Gothaischer Schulmethodus", published in 1642, has a deep significance, in that it first prescribed the compulsory school attendance in the history of education of the world. But it should be considered that the traditional comprehension of "Gothaischer Schulmethodus" has been superficial and perfunctory. The Code of "Gathaischer Schulmethodus" was revised several times since 1642. However the past studies in this field lacked the total survey of the whole and the correct understanding of the mental intention running through it. On this article, I intend to correct a defect of the past study in this matter. (1) The basic foundation in the history of society and thought, that brought forth "Gothaischer Schulmethodus". (2) The total survey of "Gothaischer Schulmethodus". (3) An attempt of affirmative evaluation of "Gothaischer Schulmethodus". It is the chief aim in this study to make clear the pietistic intention and realistic character, accompanied by "Gothaischer Schulmethodus", according as the above-mentioned ordinary. This study will make clear the modernity of "Gothaischer Schulmethodus" and it will be necessarily required to make re-examination concerning the evaluation of "Gothaischer Schulmethodus".

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This article is the explanation of T. Jefferson's plans of public education and its backgrounds, and the study of those modern significance in the history of American public education. (1) He proposed three major principles in his "Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge (1779)" that were the universal education gratis for three years, the ladder system of public education, and the selective principle of education which is highly evaluated. (2) His last principle was offered on the basis of his idea on Democracy, that is, "Jeffersonian Democracy". This is characterized by his peculiar understandings of human nature that there are the natural aristocracies of virtue and talent among men. From this point of view, he insists not only the general enlightenment of all people, but also the selection of men of virtue and talent from the mass, who are too poor to pay for further schooling, in order to let them continue higher education by public funds and take a national leadership in future. When we consider the nowaday problems of American public education, it is so apparent for us that this Jefferson's principle shows some excellent and useful suggestions. Namely, these suggestions are, by J. B. Conant, that American higher educational institutions should be improved on the basis of Jeffersonian idea of selective principle, in order to secure these academical standard and to train the real useful talents, that American should appreciate the benefits of the scholarship system, in order to secure the American social fluidity, and etc. (3) T. Jefferson's view of the relation of public school and religion has the modern significance in his proposals, too. If to review the "Everson Case" and "McCollum Case, we shall recognize the importance of his view. The discussions of his view of this area are, above all, concentrated into his agreement on a plan for establishing the divinity schools on the confines of the site of Virginia State University. His agreement talks us that public funds shall not be granted religious schools and sectarian religious education shall not be instructed in public schools. But, with regard to the latter, we must notice the ambiguity of his view. Certainly, he insists that sectarian religious education shall be driven away, but, in other words, this is his insistence on the necessity of non-sectarian religious education in public education. And so we can not easily call him an adovocate of the separation of church and state in education. But it is very significant for us that he proclaimes the necessity of some kinds of religious education in public school, although he insists nonsectarian religious education from his standpoint of Uniterian.

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