In our society, exposure to conflicting information concerning public issues is the norm rather than the exception. Despite this, to date there has been no comprehensive assessment of studies examining the effects of exposure to conflicting information on attitude formation and change. Therefore, the present article reviewed empirical studies across three relevant research areas: social network heterogeneity, competitive framing, and attitude polarization. Synthesis of these findings suggest that exposure to conflicting information weakens the strength of preexisting attitudes, encourages the formation of moderate attitudes, enhances the impact of a frame (a stronger frame, an antecedent frame, or a subsequent frame) on attitude formation, or leads to perceived attitude polarization. As a unified explanation of these effects, a model is presented. This model posits that a certain aspect of conflicting information communicated, including a conflict of claims, arguments, and frames, is highlighted by moderating factors (e.g., the presence or absence of social network as an information source, the accessibility of preexisting attitudes), thereby bringing about different exposure effects. Finally, some directions for future research are proposed.

Deception, especially unexpressed deception, concealment, is difficult to detect from words and behavior. Thus, psychophysiological approaches are used to detect deception. One such approach is the Concealed Information Test (CIT). The CIT is used in criminal investigations to examine a subject’s concealing of a memory through autonomic and/or central nervous activities. In contrast, psychophysiologists generally infer cognitive processes from physiological responses. This study aimed to reveal the cognitive processes of concealing the memory by reviewing physiological responses during the CIT. We demonstrated that the intent to conceal memory (or withdrawal motivation) would increase the significance of the memory and recruit controlled processes, such as monitoring and inhibition of physiological responses.

The present paper reviewed experiments, especially the methods used therein, that investigated colors seen by other persons, color-abnormal persons, including unilateral color-blind and cataract patients. Binocular color-matching between their abnormal and normal eyes provided very interesting information concerning colors seen by abnormal eyes. Multi-dimensional scaling applied to color-difference judgements of color-normal and -abnormal observers produced different two-dimensional mappings of colors similar to distorted color circles. Apparent depths of various color surfaces were also compared between the two kinds of observers. The paper also reviewed some other experiments on colors observed by bees, carp, monkeys and a chimpanzee. These were studied using color-chips and color-lights. Careful control of the stimuli was necessary, because some creatures, like bees, can see some colors in wavelengths where humans cannot. Experiments on a chimpanzee indicated that it could learn various color categories in a similar manner as humans, even when only a typical sample of each color was presented during the learning period.

Quantitative studies and process models of narrative persuasion published since 2000 were reviewed in order to identify influences of narratives on readers’ attitudes that result from changes in thinking and affect. Firstly, characteristics of narrative persuasion research were briefly introduced by summarizing definitions of narratives and attitudes, and by illustrating typical methodologies of narrative persuasion research. Secondly, theories on the process of narrative persuasion and narrative experiences were reviewed. These models were then integrated and the process of narrative persuasion was categorized into thinking and affective routes, and each process was explained with reference to supportive studies. It was suggested that the affective route currently has stronger empirical support than the thinking route. Finally, topics for future research were suggested, which include closely examining each process, improving methodologies, and comprehensively investigating relationships between narrative persuasions and narrative experiences.