Since the 1940s, response shaping, also called “shaping of a new operant response,” has been a central issue in behavior analysis. However, most studies have been reports on the artistic practice of response shaping, and limited experimental analysis has been conducted on its control variables. The purpose of this study was to summarize the current status of the scientific research on response shaping and to explore its future prospects. After defining it and summarizing its historical background, studies were reviewed on its success or failure and the experimental analysis of its control variables. Three directions were suggested for the future: standardization of the experimental methods, introduction of an automatic measurement technology of response topography, and a steady experimental analysis of its control variables. The conceptual significance of response shaping is discussed with regard to its current position in modern psychology.

Rating scales are by far the most popular psychological measure and their use extends beyond psychological studies. However, their origins are curiously obscure, and their working mechanism is not well-known. Therefore, their safety as a research tool is a concern. The aim of this study was to make a comprehensive historical search into the genesis of the rating scale in its original context and to thereby understand the hidden operational principles of rating processes. Many examples existed before the Likert study (1932) and were used in the studies of Galton and Pearson and in studies on aesthetics (Roger de Piles), educational evaluation (Rugg), industrial psychology (W. D. Scott), and psychophysics (Beaufort), but without a strong mutual connection. This paper argues that, when evaluated on a time axis, the rating scales are self-generated in fits and starts, which may indicate that the root of rating scales lies in the numerical cognition and production of mankind.

On the Internet, the appearance of behaviors that differ from those used in real-life may be observed. The online disinhibition theory, pioneered by Suler (2004), has frequently been cited in empirical studies to explain this phenomenon. However, scholars have not reached a consensus regarding the construct of online disinhibition. In this study, an appropriate construct of online disinhibition for psychological research was explored and a model was proposed to explain its functioning. First, this study highlighted that previous studies have examined online disinhibition from three perspectives. This paper discusses the contributions and limitations of previous studies and postulates that psychological research on online disinhibition should be conducted from the perspective of the mental state. Three significant models that explain the working of online disinhibition were reviewed: the “benign/toxic disinhibition model,” “online disinhibition/behaviors model,” and “online disinhibition and deindividuation model.” Finally, the “motivation-based online disinhibition model” is proposed as an improved model that solves the limitations of the aforementioned models.

This article reviews research on the motives (i.e., the reason for action) of older adults to engage in various activities. This review included studies on the motives of older adults engaging in the following activities: (1) physical activity/exercise, (2) lifelong learning/education, (3) volunteering, (4) leisure activities, (5) caring (i.e., medical and nursing care) for older adults, (6) relocation, and (7) work. The selected studies indicated that the motives of older adults are divided into four categories: (1) personal- and acquisition-oriented, (2) social- and acquisition-oriented, (3) personal- and regulation-oriented, and (4) social- and regulation-oriented. This finding suggested that older adults participate in activities with these motives in an attempt to adapt to changes associated with loss as they age such as a decline in physical and cognitive function, and a diminishing of interpersonal relationships.

To clarify the psychological characteristics associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), an umbrella review was conducted concerning the evidence of differences in behavioral indices between individuals with ADHD and individuals with typical development. Attention measures have large effect sizes and include omission error, commission error, and standard deviation of the reaction time in a continuous performance test. However, in previous research, the indices did not precisely discriminate between individuals with ADHD and individuals with typical development, which suggests that one psychological function cannot explain all characteristics of ADHD. The effect sizes of the other indices were small to medium, although these indices have been associated with the core characteristics of ADHD. In previous studies that used multiple indices, children with ADHD were classified into several groups, based on different psychological characteristics. The findings revealed heterogeneity in the psychological characteristics of ADHD. Future studies that focus on the heterogeneity of ADHD and that examine the psychological functions of ADHD, independently of diagnostic systems, is suggested. Thus, research trends may change the concepts of ADHD.