Mindfulness is a form of contemplative practice that has its roots in Theravāda Buddhist meditation. Since its introduction in the West in the early 1970s, mindfulness has gained enormous popularity, especially as a “novel form” of a health-enhancing protocol. In this article, I review its global history, theoretical tenets, available empirical evidence, and emerging controversies surrounding mindfulness. I then provide recommendations for its sound development in Japan.

In this article, we reviewed the evidence of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) in various clinical fields (i.e., health/medicine, industry/work, education, forensics/criminology, and social welfare). Our purposes were to provide findings, problems, and future issues of research on the clinical applications of mindfulness. We discuss the evidence in each clinical field with published meta-analytic studies and point out evidence-related problems such as a lack of randomized controlled trials and the heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Via reviewing the latest studies, we discuss issues such as utilization without careful consideration of MBIs and a lack of an established training program for instructors. We also report the most current approach of MBIs that has received much attention in each clinical field.

Equanimity is derived from traditional Buddhism and is defined as an even-minded mental state or dispositional tendency toward all experiences or objects, regardless of their origin or their affective valence (i.e., pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral). It has recently attracted attention in the field of psychology. Equanimity is one of the most important concepts for clarifying the neural and psychological mechanism of mindfulness and compassion meditation. This article reviews five topics: mindfulness in traditional Buddhism and in modern psychology, equanimity in Buddhism, the construct of equanimity in psychology, equanimity in the process of emotion regulation of mindfulness meditation, and the neural mechanism of emotion regulation in mindfulness meditation. Based on these reviews, this article proposes that equanimity, which decouples desire from feeling, is related to the attenuated response to prediction errors, which is associated with the anterior insular cortex and striatum. Further research investigating the neural mechanism of these relations directly is needed to clarify the neural and psychological mechanisms of mindfulness and compassion meditation.

Mindfulness affects a variety of psychological problems, and many psychological concepts have been introduced to explain the mechanism of these effects. However, a unified understanding has not been attained. In this paper, we discuss the mechanism of mindfulness from the perspective of the predictive coding model, which has been attracting attention in recent years as a potential unified theory to explain various brain functions. Based on our review, we found that mindfulness is characterized by (1) predominantly minimizing prediction errors via perceptual inference, which updates predictions based on sensations rather than by active inference (which attempts to modify sensations to match predictions); (2) increasing the precision of sensory input by attention, and (3) decreasing the precision of prior predictions by not weighting past experiences. These features may lead to rapid minimization of prediction error and an accurate understanding of the inner and outer environment. By redefining mindfulness in the predictive coding model, we discuss the possibility of understanding the mechanisms of mindfulness from a unified perspective that explains human perception, behavior, cognition, and emotion.

“Body” is an important element in the practice of mindfulness. However, the role of the body in theory and mechanism of action in mindfulness has been actively discussed only in the last decade. In this paper, we reviewed the role of the body in mindfulness from clinical and theoretical perspectives, based on “embodiment”. First, in the clinical perspective, based on mindfulness-based intervention (MBI), we examined the implication of “body awareness” through findings of the interaction between emotion and cognition; subjective body experience, in particular; depression and alexithymia. We then excavated “noticing emotions through the body” as a premise of the interventions. Second, the theoretical backgrounds of each MBI were organized into the Kabat-Zinn’s concept of “wholeness,” Varela’s Enactivism, Gallagher’s theory of self-consciousness, the Interacting Cognitive Subsystems and Predictive Coding Theory, and then were related to Bergson’s cone diagram on the perspective timescales, proposing some future integration strategy about “wholeness” as continuum, as an attempt. Finally, based on these perspectives, we derived new implications for embodiment-based mindfulness practice and theoretical assumption: embodied awareness through “wholeness” can lead us decentering (far into “non-self”) only in the context of the ‘as-it-is’ attitude.

Mindfulness meditation was introduced a long time ago and is practiced in the world of clinical psychology. Beginning with the development of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) in the 1990s, a variety of psychotherapies using mindfulness meditation have been developed. I am pleased to see that the content of these therapies seems to be more comprehensive than when they were first introduced; however, I have some concerns. As a researcher of Buddhism, I believe that the wisdom and knowledge obtained from the literature handed down by Buddhism has not been utilized. Therefore, this essay focuses on the following points: (1) the relationship between mindfulness and Buddhist meditation, (2) how to manage negative reactions that occur during the process of observation, and (3) future issues. The Buddha did not simply make a great deal of observation of body and mind. He instead showed individuals how they should be in this world, overcome human suffering and distress, and then aim for human happiness (i.e., the so-called “mindfulness of the second generation”). This point should not be forgotten.

Mindfulness is widely used in modern society as a treatment for psychological symptoms and as a practice to improve well-being. However, in recent years, teachers of Buddhism, which is the root of mindfulness, have expressed concerns that contemporary mindfulness-based interventions lack a clear ethical framework. In this paper, I examine the need for ethics in mindfulness practice, referring to Buddhism and psychological research, in terms of preventing harmful outcomes, promoting the wellbeing of the practitioners themselves, and providing a foundation for practices that end suffering. I conclude that incorporating elements of ethics into mindfulness practice and research may lead to the development of more effective intervention techniques and theoretical models with more explanatory power.

Self-compassion is a positive attitude toward oneself that accepts the pain one faces in a difficult situation, alleviates that pain, and wishes to be happy. This article discussed the psychological constructs of self-compassion and Mindful Self-Compassion (MSC), a program that aids individuals in developing self-compassion. Based on a review of previous studies, we suggested that (1) self-compassion is a concept related to physical and mental health and its range of application is much broader than that of other existing psychological concepts; (2) MSC, which specializes in the development of self-compassion, is a program that can increase resilience by bringing awareness that individuals are not treated with kindness and understanding (i.e., mindfulness) and by filling oneself with self-compassion; and (3) MSC programs are likely to have positive effects on a wide spectrum of participants, including community samples and clinical groups. Research issues on self-compassion and the MSC are also discussed.

The aim of this study was to review current conceptualizations, assessment measures, experiments, and interventions of compassion towards self and others. Compassion is an emotional state or psychological tendency. Several surveys and experiments have demonstrated that compassion leads to improved well-being. Compassion-based interventions (CBIs) apply Buddhist loving-kindness and compassion meditation. In addition, several meta-analyses from various fields show that CBIs improve well-being in various subjects. However, the process of improving well-being through CBIs remains unclear when taking into account details such as perceptions, attitude, and response tendencies. Empirical research indicates that compassion is beneficial for well-being and the ability to manage distress. However, future studies examining the process of CBIs using active control groups are warranted to extend these findings.