The relationship between primates and lice is discussed. Lice are ectoparasites that live on the body surface of mammals and, in contrast to ticks and fleas, do not leave the host during their life cycle. Host mammals may experience adverse effects from lice, such as anemia and skin irritation. Moreover, lice are vectors of infectious diseases; for example, human lice (Pediculus humanus) transmit the epidemic typhus pathogen between humans (Homo sapiens). DDT virtually eliminated human lice in several countries after World War II. Early Japanese primatologists who began research during this period had little interest in the relationship between primates and lice. Primates groom each other to remove lice, ticks, and small objects. Prosimians use their lower incisors to groom, similar to rodents and African antelopes, whereas anthropoids, which have a retinal fovea with high visual acuity and functional fingers that allow them to find and pick small ectoparasites from the body surface, groom using their hands and mouth. Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata) and lice (Pedicinus obtusus, P. eurygaster) have an entwined host-parasite and predator-prey relationship. Lice lay nits on monkeys, who are hosts, in areas where hair growth is dense because the hair conceals nits from the monkeys, who are their predators. Monkeys remove and eat nits according to nit density. Given the high intrinsic rate of natural increase in lice, monkeys need to groom daily. This necessity may explain why monkeys live with grooming partners making social groups. The development of simplified techniques to estimate louse infection in primates will advance the study of socioecological models and lice infection dynamics in primate metapopulations.

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ニホンザルは毛づくろい中にシラミ卵をつまみ上げて食べる。その行動の形成過程B過程を調べるため、毛づくろい中におけるつまみ上げる行動について、餌付け群である志賀Ａ－1群で横断的調査を行った。デジタルビデオカメラを用いて毛づくろい行動を撮影L録し、DVD-Rに落として、DVDプレイヤーで静止tスローを使ってつまみ上げ行動を解析した。コドモではつまみ上げた後、つまみ上げをやめ、別のところを探索することが多かったが、年齢が上昇するにつれてつまみ上げたものを食べる割合が上昇した。このつまみ上げた後でつまみ上げたものを食べる割合は年齢と相関した(Kendall順位相関、P< 0.01)。また同じ年齢群内での食べる割合の分散も年齢が上昇するにつれて、小さくなった。一方、性別による違いは見られなかった。言い換えると、コドモではよく見られるシラミ卵処理以外のつまみ上げるs動が、オトナになると毛づ中で起こらなくなっていく。まとめると、毛づくろい中のつまむ行動は、大人になるにつれて、シラミ卵処理行動に収れんする。食べる割合は、子供期に個体間分散が大きく、成長するにつれて個体間分散が小さくなることから、摘み上げるものがシラミ卵になるようにニホンザルが学習獲得していくのでないかと示唆された。

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Social interactions of the second ranking male chimpanzee, Nsaba, were analyzed at M group of the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania, comparing with those of a middle ranking male, Aji, who was as old as Nsaba. Both Nsaba and Aji spent more time in proximity to and grooming with adult males than individuals of any other age/sex classes. As a whole, they engaged in grooming reciprocally with adult males, groomed adult females more than were groomed by, and groomed adolescent males less than were groomed by. However, Nsaba almost onesidedly groomed some adult males, while Aji engaged in grooming reciprocally with most adult males. They were frequently pant-grunted at by adolescent males and adult females. They uttered about 2 pant-hoots an hour, some of which were followed by aggressive displays.
Nsaba had a strained relationship with the alpha male Ntologi. Although he sometimes pant-grunted at and followed Ntologi, they did not groom one another. Furthermore, Ntologi performed aggressive displays at Nsaba, especially when he stayed together with Kalunde, the third ranking male. Nsaba sometimes traveled alone, avoiding Ntologi's aggression. Ntologi seemed to have tried to form coalition with Kalunde and opposing him against Nsaba. However, Kalunde frequently engaged in grooming with Nsaba when Ntologi did not stay nearby. Coalition strategies among males were discussed, focusing on the second ranking male.

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産卵鶏にマッシュ飼料を不断給餌または時間制限給餌(4時間,2時間/日)し,VTRを用いてそれぞれの場合における各行動形の占有時間を調べた。さらに,給餌時間の漸減(最少2時間/日)に伴う摂食行動の変化を観察して,ペレットを用いた同様の実験の結果5)と比較した。
1. 採食量は,1日4時間給餌期で不断給餌期の約80%,2時間給餌期では約60%まで減少した。
2. 採食に費す時間は,不断給餌期では明期の約30%であり,給餌時間の短縮に伴って減少した。しかし,飲水,つつき,羽づくろいは,給餌時間の短縮による増減が明確でなく,採食を含めた嘴を使う行動形の合計時間は相対的に漸減した。
3. 騒ぎ(Disturbed behav.)は,給餌時間が短いほど多く,特に給餌前の2～3時間に多発した。
4. マッシュの場合は,1日4時間以下の給餌時間では,量的にも制限されることとなり,その結果,騒ぎが増加し,ペレットの場合とは異なった結果が示された。

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More than half a century has passed since Imanishi (1952) proposed ‘culture’ to nonhuman animals. Now, although there is still some skepticism, the discussion of nonhuman cultures is widely accepted in the international academic world. It seems that the study of cultures has become one of the important topics in primatology. In this review, I introduce recent trends of cultural studies on nonhuman primates. First, I give a brief outline of the history of the studies. Then I summarize recent findings of cultural primatology by dividing them into the following three domains: 1) chimpanzee tool use; 2) chimpanzee cultures other than tool use; 3) cultures in other primate species. The most well studied domain is the foraging tool use where more and more additional information about the distributions of known tool types has been reported from new study sites in addition to several novel tool types. From long studied sites, the details of developmental process or tool selection are often well investigated. There are some reports on cultural behaviors outside of foraging tool techniques but the information is still limited compared to tool use. Finally I introduce some of the recent debates on nonhuman cultures by focusing on the distinction between culture and tradition, the distinction between social and asocial learning, and the ‘ethnographic’ method often employed by field primatologists. I argue that recent discussions of animal culture often tacitly include the idea of hierarchical advances that implies the complex and sophisticated human culture is in the highest and the best stage. This reminds us of the outdated view on human cultural hierarchism which saw the modernized western culture as the final stage. I stress the importance of writing ‘real’ ethnographies of nonhuman primates for full development of cultural primatology.

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三環系抗うつ薬であるlopramine(LOP)の一般薬理作用をimipramine(IMP)のそれと比較検討し，次の成績を得た．マウスの行動および外観的生理状態に対するLOPの作用はIMPと比べて軽微であり，ネコ皮質脳波の高振巾徐波化および海馬律動波の消失化作用も弱い．LOPはラットの条件回避反応，炎症性(ラット)および圧刺激性(マウス)落痛，ウサギ体温，電撃あるいは薬物によるマウスの痙攣に対して，ほとんど作用なく，マウスの自発運動を軽度に抑制する．一方，IMPでは鎮痛，体温上昇傾向(高用量)および電撃による強直性伸展痙攣の抑制などの諸作用がみられ，自発運動の抑制も強い．Oxotremorineによるマウスのtremorおよび体温下降に対して，LOPは後者のみを抑制するが，IMPは両老に対して拮抗する．麻酔イヌにおいて，LOPは呼吸数の増加，血圧下降，左心室内圧および左心室内圧上昇速度(dp/dt max．syst．)の低下(高用量)などの作用を示し，IMPでは降圧作用が強く，dp/dtの低下(高用量)が著明である．LOPは低用量:で麻酔イヌにおけるnorepinephrineの昇圧作用およびacetylcholine(ACh)の降圧作用を増強し，tyramine(Tyr)の昇圧作用を著明に抑制するが，高用量ではAChの作用を減弱する．IMPの作用もこれと同様であるが，TyrおよびAChに対する拮抗はLOPよりも強い．LOPは麻酔イヌの胃運動に対してほとんど無作用であるが，空腸運動を抑制する．IMPは胃運動を軽度に尤進し，空腸に対しては一過性の強い充進ののち抑制を示す．モルモット摘出回腸におけるLOPの抗spasmogen作用(非特異的)はIMPよりも弱く，ラット摘出子宮の自動運動およびcatecholamineによるモルモッと摘出輸精管の収縮に対しては無作用である，一方，IMPは子宮運動を抑制し，高濃度では抗catecholamine作用を示す．ラットの排尿量および尿中電解質排泄量はLOPによって減少(傾向)し，IMPによって増加(傾向)がみられる．

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Recent studies on the mechanism of social transmission in animals (Galef 1988, Whiten & Ham 1992) revealed various types of observational learning, particularly local/stimulus enhancement. This type which includes both “the acquirement of partial information from other individuals” and “trial and error” suggests that the primitive forms of social learning can be regarded as simple extensions of individual learning. From this viewpoint, I investigated two instances of social transmission in free-ranging Japanese macaques: tool-using (stone-throwing) and louse-egg-handling techniques during grooming. In the latter, the distribution of these techniques suggests social transmission based on maternal kin and the social system of dominance -the tendency of subordinates to groom more often than to be groomed- may result in oblique transmission of various techniques from low-ranking monkeys to some offspring of high-ranking females.

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A Mammal stops sucking and starts chewing in the growing process. Buccinator muscle, which is one of the facial muscles, mainly works during sucking. Masseter muscle, which is one of the masticatory muscles, mainly works during chewing. Tongue muscle works to help sucking and chewing. I studied electromyographically the buccinator, tongue and masseter muscles in freely-moving rats, with a view to finding the characteristics and the relations of those muscles' activities during feeding, grooming, exploring and resting. Bipolar electromyographic electrodes of 50μm (in diameter) stainless steel wire coated with Teflon^[○!R] were placed subcutaneously on the center of buccinator, tongue and masseter muscles, and led to a connector pedestal on the rat's head. EMGs of the buccinator muscle and the tongue muscle were recorded simultaneously, and so were those of the buccinator muscle and the masseter muscle. The results were as follows ; 1. The rhythmical discharges of the buccinator, tongue and masseter muscles appeared during feeding, grooming, exploring and resting. 2. The rhythmical bursts during feeding of the buccinator muscle had relation to that of the tongue muscle, and also to that of the masseter muscle. The cycles of those were about 220 msec in all of them. 3. The time lag of the rhythmical bursts during feeding between the buccinator muscle and the tongue muscle was about 100 msec. That between the buccinator muscle and the masseter muscle was about 10 msec. 4. The duration of the rhythmical bursts during feeding was the longest in the tongue muscle's activities, and was almost the same between the buccinator and the masseter muscle activities. 5. The integrated EMG activities of the buccinator muscle were almost the same in the cases except resting. The integrated EMG activities of the tongue muscle in grooming and exploring were about half of that in feeding, that in resting, about the one fifth of that in feeding. The integrated EMG activities of the masseter muscle in grooming, exploring and resting was smaller than that in feeding.

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Influences of affinity and lengths of separation on greeting behaviors were examined in a group of captive chimpanzees. According to Nishida et al. (1999), the greeting behaviors were defined as affiliative interactions, such as embrace, kiss, inspect genitals, in this study. The most important factor which enhances the frequency of greeting behaviors among females was being separated, and the second one was high score of the proximity index while the influence of lengths of separation was not detected. These findings supported Nishida’s (1970) hypothesis that “the greeting behaviors of chimpanzees had the function of continuing social bond among group members who did not always range together”.

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We reported one case of parturition behavior and five other cases of maternal behaviors which were rarely observed in a free-ranging group of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata). An eight-year-old female spent more than 3 hours alone before delivery and almost 2 hours afterwards, without being approached by any other group members. The frequency and duration of constractions gradually increased, and the female frequently touched her vulva and perineal region with the fingers of her hand, as the time for delivery grew near. She started to approach other group members about 2 hours after the delivery.
A nine-year-old female did not hold her first newborn to her ventrum after parturition, but walked bipedally, grasping the newborn with both hands. These inappropriate maternal behaviors disappeared the following day. An 11-year-old female carried her newborn ventrally and her yearling dorsally at the same time. This simultaneous carrying of two offspring was recorded for only the first five days after the birth of the newborn. Two other females allowed their one-year-old offspring to nurse after their newborn infant died within two weeks of the infant's life. Moreover, a 13-year-old multiparous female with a four-week-old newborn adopted a week-old newborn and took care of both in the same manner.

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総合的実践授業の評価から,次のことが判明した。1.総合的実践授業の有効性を,意識面および知識面において確認できた。2.授業に対する意識を形成する要因として,生活状況,テスト成績,実践的態度の影響を一部受けていることを把握できた。3.意欲について,題材構成相互の関連性を考察したが,同じ事例に対して授業方法が違っても,同レベルの反応をする場合が多かった。授業方法では,講義および調査と比較すると,実習は,事例により固有の反応をする傾向が明らかになった。多様な生徒の意欲を引き出すために,実習題材は,偏らずに選定することが望ましい。4,双生児の場合,生活状況は類似しているが,実践的態度においては,女子は類似しているものの,男子は異なっている傾向であった。遺伝的素質が近似し,同じような家庭生活および学校生活の下でも,地域生活の影響や生徒個人の個性の確立により,多様な認識構造を形成していることが判明した。よって,家庭外の広範な地域生活を視野に入れて題材事例を選択する必要がある。

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家庭内で手話と口話を併用して相互交渉を行う3〜4才の女児1名(両親ともろう)と、口話のみで相互交渉を行う同年令の女児1名(両親とも健聴)の家庭における自由場面での母子相互交渉を4ヶ月にわたってビデオ録画し、相互交渉プロトコルを作成、分析した。その結果、表面的な文構造においては、手話併用児が優れているとは言えなかったが、手話、身振りなどの規約的な伝達手段を含めた総体的なコミュニケーションの語用論的分析では、交渉の主題を中心とした首尾一貫性がみられることなど、口話児に比して優れている点が多くみられた。これらの点に関連して、手話併用による早期教育の可能性が論じられた。

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本研究は, 授業中に学習者が感じたことを率直に記載した学習カルテの発話から, 学習過程を把握し授業分析を行うことによって授業改善に役立つ情報を獲得することを最終目的としている.これまで4年間, 毎年約100名の学生を対象に, 情報科学の授業において学習カルテを利用した発話の記録を行い, その結果から授業改善を行うことができた.その知見に基づき, 学習者の発話から理解変容に関与する発話を分析する方略を明らかにし, 理解度成績の上位群と下位群による発話分析から, 両群の差異を分析した.その結果, 「面白い」「楽しい」など授業に対する興味関心を示す発話には両群の間に大きな差はなく, 「使いこなしたい」「便利だ」など機械と学習者の相対的位置関係を表す発話では上位群が有意に高いことが明らかになった.これによって学習カルテによる発話分析から教育評価を行う授業改善支援システムの可能性が示された.

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