インフルエンサーと消費者とのパラソーシャル関係が製品の態度と推奨意向に及ぼす影響

Abstract

This study examines the impact of one-to-many parasocial relationships between social media influencers and consumers on product attitudes and referrals using social comparison theory. Focusing on beauty and fashion social media influencers on YouTube, this study employs a structural equation model to test how influencer credibility and the psychological dimensions of consumer envy affect product attitudes and referrals through parasocial relationships. The results of analyzing 120 samples of response data confirmed the validity of the components of influencer credibility, which include 5 factors (trustworthiness, expertise, social attractiveness, physical attractiveness, and homophily). Influencer credibility and envy were observed to positively influence product attitudes and referrals while enhancing parasocial relationships with consumers. In particular, trustworthiness, social attractiveness, and homophily strongly influence parasocial relationships. This study contributes to the literature by developing a comprehensive model of the parasocial relationships between influencers and consumers and their impact on product attitudes and referrals.

Translated Abstract

本研究は，社会的比較理論を基本におきながら，ソーシャルメディア・インフルエンサーと視聴者との1対多数のパラソーシャルな関係が，製品態度や推奨意向に与える影響について検証したものである。YouTubeにおけるビューティー・ファッション系のソーシャルメディア・インフルエンサーを対象に，インフルエンサーの信憑性と，消費者の心理的側面である羨みが，パラソーシャルな関係性を通じて，製品態度と推奨意向にどのように影響するのかを構造方程式モデルで検証した。120サンプルの回答データを分析した結果，インフルエンサーの信憑性（信頼性・専門性・社会的魅力・身体的魅力・同一性）の構成要素の妥当性が確認され，インフルエンサーの信憑性や羨みが消費者とのパラソーシャル関係を高めながら，製品態度や推奨意向に正の影響を与えることが明らかになった。特に，信憑性の信頼性，社会的魅力，同一性などの要素がパラソーシャル関係に強い影響を与えていた。本研究の貢献は，社会比較理論に焦点を当てながら，インフルエンサーと消費者のパラソーシャル関係を包括モデルとして設計し，製品態度や推奨意向に与える影響を明らかにした点である。

I.  Introduction

Recently, the environment surrounding brands has changed dramatically. Information gathering has shifted from search engines such as Google to social network services (SNS), particularly among the younger generation. Brands can connect with their customers through online media and communities, building long-term relationships. For example, the Nike Run Club not only records training and presents running routes but also offers voice-guided advice from athletes and coaches. This motivates users to remain involved in the app community. Many other well-known athletes and influencers appear on the #nikerunning Instagram page and share the brand’s appeal through videos and photographs. They post recommendations about products and brands on social media and are called “social media influencers”. Furthermore, brands may engage in collaborative efforts with influencers to disseminate their products among target consumers, thereby reducing the costs associated with advertising and promotion.

Recently, videos have become the primary source of information dissemination, with YouTube’s usage rate for people aged 10 to 40 exceeding 90%. The spontaneity of YouTube videos is perceived as a source of pleasure by viewers, who also experience a sense of connection with influencers. This leads to the intention to trust the information presented in videos. In particular, beauty and fashion video content on YouTube is popular, and product introductions in these videos have a significant effect on women’s purchasing behavior (Sudha & Sheena, 2017).

This study aims to examine the effect of influencers’ social media posts on consumer purchasing behavior and employs empirical research methods to examine the role of beauty and fashion influencers, with a focus on the dissemination of video content on YouTube. Previous studies on influencers have focused on the credibility of these individuals. Nevertheless, studies examining the parasocial relationships (PSRs) between influencers and audiences are lacking (Aw & Chuah, 2021).

Moreover, envy is a psychological state caused by comparing oneself to others, that significantly influencing parasocial relationships. This study aims to establish a conceptual framework for understanding the dynamics of parasocial relationships and the role of influencer credibility in shaping social comparison theory. In addition, this work conducts empirical research on the effects of parasocial relationships on consumer product attitudes and product referrals.

II.  Theoretical Background

1.  Social media influencers

Traditional celebrities gain fame through television, movies, sports, or other professions, and celebrity-endorsed advertising has been observed to have a significant effect on purchasing behavior and decisions (McCracken, 1989). The popularity of social media has led to the rise of “celebrity influencers” who combine traditional fame with promotional content posted on social media (Wahid & Gunarto, 2021). However, non-celebrity influencers are perceived as having stronger characteristics than celebrity influencers, making them more credible and relatable (Djafarova & Rushworth, 2017). In this study, according to Hwang and Zhang (2018), we define influencers as follows: “Influencers share their personal lifestyles and values with consumers, which conveys stronger personal characteristics, makes consumers feel more realistic, and makes the influence and persuasiveness of the post more effective”.

2.  Influencer credibility

The credibility of a source or message represents a main element in assessing the persuasive impact of communication, and earlier scholars have employed source credibility to assess the impact of persuasive messages (Hovland & Weiss, 1951). Hovland et al. (1953) conceptualized source credibility as a two-dimensional construct: trustworthiness and expertise. Trustworthiness assesses the message-receivers’ perceived honesty, sincerity, or truthfulness (Giffin, 1967). Expertise refers to a source’s competence and qualifications in assessing a certain topic or subject (McCroskey, 1966). McGuire (1985) proposed a third component of source credibility, attractiveness, which can be divided into social and physical attractiveness. The term “social attractiveness” pertains to the likeability of a source. Sharma (1990) highlighted the impact of source attractiveness on viewers’ cognitive processes and attitudes. Physical attractiveness refers to appearance characteristics, such as being classy, sexy or beautiful (Ohanian, 1990). In addition, Munnukka et al. (2016) proposed a new dimension, homophily, which refers to the degree of similarity in social status, education, and other characteristics between influencers and consumers (Lou & Yuan, 2019). As previously indicated, Xiao et al. (2018) examined the effect of trustworthiness, expertise, attractiveness, and homophily on the credibility of an influencer’s message in the context of influencer marketing. Their findings suggest that the credibility of an influencer’s message positively affects both the influencer’s endorsements and brand attitudes. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:

H1: The credibility of an influencer comprises the following five factors: (a) trustworthiness, (b) expertise, (c) social attractiveness, (d) physical attractiveness, and (e) homophily.

3.  Parasocial relationships

Horton and Wohl (1956) defined parasocial relationships as unilateral relationships that a media audience develops with a celebrity, such as those seen on television or radio. Previous studies on parasocial relationships focus primarily on celebrity advertising in mass media (Yuan et al., 2016); however, recent studies tend to describe the relationships between social media characters and audiences. Lou and Yuan (2019) highlighted that the one-sided interactions between influencers and their followers are treated as parasocial relationships. Social media’s capacity to facilitate two-way communication through comments provides influencers and their followers with an opportunity to enhance their psychological connections. However, it is difficult for influencers to communicate with and know all their followers, which suggests a one-sided relationship (Hwang & Zhang, 2018).

Sokolova and Kefi (2020) argued that credibility includes physical attractiveness and trustworthiness and can serve to strengthen the emotional bond between the source and the audience. As Lou and Kim (2019) observed, the credibility of a source can reinforce the parasocial bond between an influencer and their followers.

However, Lou and Yuan (2019) did not conceptualize influencer credibility as a singular construct. Lou and Kim (2019) examined the parasocial relationships between influencers and adolescent followers but did not specifically assess influencer credibility on social media platforms. The originality of this study is predicated on the assumption that the comprehensive credibility of H1 will have a positive effect on the parasocial relationship, and thus the following hypothesis, H2, is proposed.

H2: The credibility of an influencer has a positive and significant effect on parasocial relationships.

4.  Social comparison theory

(1)  Social comparison theory

Social comparison theory states that individuals engage in self-evaluation by comparing their abilities and opinions with those of others. Additionally, the concepts of upward and downward comparisons are relevant. Upward comparison involves comparing oneself with superior individuals, which can stimulate motivation and self-improvement, and downward comparison involves comparing oneself with individuals who are deemed less than oneself, which can lead to feelings of superiority (Corcoran et al., 2011).

Smith and Kim (2007) argued that upward comparison can lead to a low self-image, resulting in consumers believing that something is lacking in themselves and envying others’ appearances. Van de Ven et al. (2009) indicated that upward comparison on social media can enhance audiences’ benign envy and lead to positive self-improvement. Several similar studies examined the relationships between influencers and consumers (Lee & Eastin, 2020; Liu et al., 2019). According to upward social comparison, envy affects consumer purchasing behavior.

(2)  Envy

Envy is an emotion that occurs when an individual lacks and thus desires another’s qualities, achievements, or possessions. Envy can be distinguished as “benign envy” or “malicious envy.” Benign envy is the positive perception of those who are superior to oneself (Van de Ven et al., 2009). Lange and Crusius (2015) proposed that envy motivates individuals to pursue self-improvement and advancement. Thus, this study argues that benign envy is a form of envy.

Consumers who are interested in influencers’ daily lives are more likely to generate envy through upward comparison, which subsequently affects their purchasing behavior (Chae, 2018). In contrast to social relationships, parasocial relationships involve pseudo-friendships and are regarded as illusionary experiences that increase consumer purchase intentions (Hwang & Zhang, 2018). As Chung and Cho (2017) argued, the envy of celebrities on social media can intensify parasocial relationships. Lee and Eastin (2020) argued that envy has a positive effect on purchasing behavior. Based on the above views, H3 is proposed:

H3: Consumers’ envy has a positive and significant effect on parasocial relationships.

Previous studies indicate a relationship between influencer credibility (perceived through attractiveness or homophily, for example) and envy. An influencer’s credibility may be valued as part of their superior status, which may increase the emotional response of their followers (Cuevas et al., 2020), and Wang et al. (2024) verified that an influencer’s credibility affects the envy of their followers. Therefore, we propose H4.

H4: The credibility of an influencer has a positive and significant effect on consumers’ envy.

(3)  Parasocial relationships and product attitudes/referrals

Previous research indicated that parasocial relationships can enhance the credibility of influencers’ endorsements (Sokolova & Kefi, 2020) and accelerated consumers’ purchase intentions (Hwang & Zhang, 2018). Influencers’ posts positively influence consumers’ product attitudes (word of mouth and purchase intentions) (Ki & Kim, 2019), and the emotional connections and relationships between influencers and consumers lead to positive attitudes toward influencer endorsement advertising and toward the recommended products (Kim & Kim, 2021). On the basis of these findings, H5 and H6 are proposed.

H5: Parasocial relationships have a positive and significant effect on product attitudes.

H6: Parasocial relationships have a positive and significant effect on product referrals.

When consumers have a positive attitude toward a product or brand that influences e-WOM (Schivinski & Dabrowski, 2016), they have a positive attitude toward an influencer who enhances recommendation and purchase intentions (Belanche et al. 2021). Furthermore, Purwianti and Niawati (2022) showed that positive e-WOM about a product or brand is important for brand image, product attitude, and purchase intention. Based on these findings, H7 is proposed.

H7: Product attitudes have a positive and significant effect on product referrals.

Figure 1 shows the proposed research model encompassing H1 to H7.

Figure 1

Structural hypotheses model of this study

III.  Methodology

1.  Sample and data collection

An online quantitative questionnaire was developed to test the various hypotheses proposed in this study. The initial online survey, conducted from September 1 to 2, 2021, via the Freeasy platform of the iBRIDGE Corporation (an online survey company), was designed to identify individuals who watched beauty and fashion videos on YouTube. A total of 1,000 samples were collected for screening purposes, and 217 (26.5%) respondents indicated that they watched beauty and fashion YouTubers’ videos. The same 217 respondents were surveyed again from September 8 to 9, 2021, using the same monitors through the Freeasy platform of the iBRIDGE Corporation. The dataset comprised 120 observations, representing 55.2% of the total sample. These observations were subjected to data analysis.

The sample comprised 99 women and 21 men, with 5 (4.17%) in the 15–19 age group, 38 (31.67%) in their 20s, 35 (29.17%) in their 30s, 30 (25%) in their 40s, and 2 (1.67%) in their 50s or older. With respect to occupation, 48 participants were company employees (including full-time employees and contract or temporary workers), 14 were students, and 14 were housewives. Respondents reported an annual income of less than 1 million yen, 55 respondents had incomes between 1 million and 5 million yen, 40 respondents had incomes between 5 million and 10 million yen, and 15 respondents had incomes of 10 million yen or more. Finally, we confirmed their viewing of beauty and fashion videos. To the question “What are the main products that you watch beauty and fashion videos on YouTube?” (multiple answers), most respondents indicated that they viewed makeup products (71.67%), followed by skin care products (60.83%), clothing (coordination) (44.17%), fashion accessories (bags, shoes, etc.) (35.83%), hair care products (33.33%), accessories (17.5%), and other products (1.67%).

2.  Measurement

The items used to measure the constructs of influencer credibility were adapted from previous studies to ensure the reliability and validity of the content. To facilitate respondents’ imagining of the concepts, the questionnaire employed the term “YouTuber” rather than “influencer,” which aligns with prior research. Influencers were operationalized using five constructs: trustworthiness, expertise, social attractiveness, physical attractiveness, and homophily. The survey items to measure trustworthiness (5 items) were adapted from Ohanian (1990), including “I feel the YouTuber is dependable,” and those to measure expertise (3 items) were also from Ohanian (1990), including “I feel the YouTuber is an expert.” Other survey items were adapted from McCroskey and McCain (1974) to measure social attractiveness (3 items) and physical attractiveness (3 items), including “I think the YouTuber could be a friend of mine”, and some were adapted from Sokolova and Kefi (2020) to measure homophily (5 items), including “This YouTuber thinks like me.”

To measure the parasocial relationships between influencers and consumers, we adopted 5 items from Lee and Watkins (2016), including “When I’m watching the YouTuber, I feel as if I am part of her group.” Consumers’ envy of influencers was measured via 3 items from Van de Ven et al. (2009) and Liu et al. (2019), including “I feel inspired by the YouTuber.”

Moreover, to measure consumer product attitudes, we adopted 5 items from Voss et al. (2003), including “I think that the brand suggested by the YouTuber that I follow have an acceptable standard of quality.” Finally, we adopted 4 items from Belanche et al. (2021) to measure consumer product referrals, including “I am interested in sharing this video with my friends on SNS.”

The questionnaire items were translated into Japanese with the assistance of two Japanese university students. This was done to ensure clarity and readability while considering the students’ comments and the characteristics of video streaming and viewing on YouTube. Consequently, certain wordings of the question items were modified. The items were based on a 5-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree).

IV.  Analysis and Results

1.  Construct reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity

The structural hypotheses model included multiple constructs, all of which were measured using multiple items. Therefore, we confirmed the data collected for common method bias, ceiling and floor effects, content reliability, and validity.

To confirm common method bias (CMB), we conducted factor extraction using IBM SPSS 28.0 software, which used all the constructs of this study (question items=43), and exploratory factor analysis (without rotation) using the main factor method with an eigenvalue of 1 or more. The results indicated the presence of 7 factors, with the first factor accounting for 39.438% of the total variance, which was below the established criterion value of 50%. This outcome validates the absence of CMB.

To ascertain the presence of ceiling and floor effects, 1±SD was subsequently confirmed on the basis of the mean score for each item. The results revealed that none of the items were below the maximum value (5) and that none of the items were below the minimum value (1).

To assess the internal consistency of each construct, Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability (CR) were employed, whereas the average variance extracted (AVE) was used to evaluate convergent validity (Table 1). The results demonstrated that Cronbach’s alpha for the variables exceeded the empirical standard (0.7) and that the composite reliability (CR) surpassed the empirical standard (0.6). Consequently, the scales used in this study exhibited internal consistency (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Convergent validity was employed to ascertain whether the standardized coefficients of the paths from latent to observed variables as well as the average variance extracted (AVE) (Tables 1 and 2) were in accordance with the established criteria. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis showed that all standardized coefficients of the paths from latent variables to observed variables were significant at the 1% level (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Additionally, the AVE scores for all latent variables exceeded 0.50, indicating that the convergent validity of the constructs was reasonable. To ensure that the scales had sufficient construct validity, it was necessary to demonstrate that the square root of all the AVE values was greater than the correlation coefficient between the factors. The square root of the AVE exceeded the correlation coefficients for all the constructs, thereby demonstrating that the scales exhibited sufficient construct validity. Accordingly, five credibility constructs were employed in the analysis, based on the average scores of each measurement scale.

Table 1

The measurement items and selected statistics, reliability, and validity of the constructs

* The questionnaire employs the term “YouTuber” rather than “influencer,” aligning with prior research.

Table 2

Interconstruct correlations and the square root of the AVE

* TW: Trustworthiness, EX: Expertise, SA: Social Attractiveness, PhA: Physial Attractiveness, HO: Homofhphily, PS: Parasocial Relationship, EN: Envy, PA: Product Attitude, PR: Product Referral

* Italics indicate square root of AVE.

2.  Results

The hypothesized structure was examined using structural equation modeling (SEM) with IBM SPSS AMOS 28.0. The model fit was χ2=362.066, df=199, p=0.000, chi-square/df=1.819, CFI=0.903, RMSEA=0.083, and Hoelter (0.01)=82. According to Hair et al. (2013), there is no problem in rejecting the χ2 test because the chi-square/df value was less than the recommended value of 3 and Hoelter (0.01) was less than 120 s of sample size; the CFI exceeded the acceptable value of 0.9, whereas the RMSEA was slightly above the acceptable value of 0.08. However, considering that a small sample size may not increase the goodness of fit of the RMSEA, that all paths are significant, and the large number of variables and the complexity of the structure (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988), we consider that the model shows a sufficient goodness of fit and adopt it in this paper.

Figure 2 illustrates the results of testing the hypotheses using structural equation modeling (SEM). First, influencer credibility, including trustworthiness (β=0.731, p<0.001), expertise (β=0.588, p<0.001), social attractiveness (β=0.780, p<0.001), physical attractiveness (β=0.645, p<0.001) and homophily (β=0.774, p<0.001), has a significant positive influence on parasocial relationships (β=0.783, p<0.001); therefore, H1a-H1e and H2 are supported. With respect to social comparison theory, envy has a significant positive influence on the parasocial relationship (β=0.210, p<0.01); therefore, H3 is supported. Credibility has a significant positive influence on envy; thus, H4 is supported (β=0.497, p<0.001).

Figure 2

Structured model results

The parasocial relationship has a significant positive influence on product attitudes and product referrals (β=0.556, p<0.001; β=0.467, p<0.001); thus, H5 and H6 are supported. Finally, regarding the influence of consumers’ product attitudes on product referrals, product attitudes have a significant positive influence on product referrals (β=0.424, p<0.001); therefore, H7 is supported.

These findings clarify three major points. First, the credibility of influencers’ posts is determined by several factors, including trustworthiness, expertise, social attractiveness, physical attractiveness and homophily. These five factors were all significant at the 1% risk level, clearly indicating their relevance to influencer credibility. Second, influencer credibility and consumer envy positively affect parasocial relationships. The coefficient from influencer credibility to parasocial relationships was 0.783, which was much greater than that of envy (0.210), indicating that credibility has a stronger impact on parasocial relationships.

Third, the parasocial relationship between influencers and consumers positively affects consumers’ product attitudes and product referrals. In particular, the coefficient of parasocial relationships on product referrals was 0.467, whereas parasocial relationships on product attitudes (0.556) were more efficacious. This evidence suggests that parasocial relationships are more effective in influencing consumer attitudes than product referrals are.

V.  Discussion and Conclusion

This study examines the influence of influencer credibility and social comparison theory (envy) on consumer attitudes and product referrals through parasocial relationships with beauty and fashion video viewers on YouTube. These findings indicate that consumers can perceive influencer credibility and envy, which increases the parasocial relationships between influencers and consumers. This, in turn, affects consumer product attitudes and product referrals.

The most significant factors influencing influencer credibility were trustworthiness, social attractiveness, and homophily. This study focused on beauty and fashion influencers, who primarily disseminate content related to cosmetics, clothing, and other products associated with their personal style. Our findings suggest that the components of influencers attractiveness significantly influence their credibility. With respect to social comparison theory, we demonstrated the influence of envy on parasocial relationships. The findings revealed that when consumers experience a strong sense of social comparison and envy owing to influencers’ posts, parasocial relationships become more profound. This is because influencers’ posts pertain to beauty and fashion products, which are associated with external appearance and a sense of style and feature a multitude of high-priced and luxury brands.

Furthermore, this study examines parasocial relationships as a significant concept in understanding the dynamics between influencers and consumers. These findings confirm that influencer credibility and consumer envy influence product and brand attitudes as well as product referrals through parasocial relationships. Specifically, influencers’ posts are more efficacious in enhancing favorable attitudes toward a product or brand than product referrals are.

This study has the following three practical implications.

First, to create a positive impression of a product among consumers, it is essential to consider the characteristics and credibility of influencers. Specifically, the compatibility between the influencer and the brand should be considered, as well as the influencer’s personal attractiveness, level of trustworthiness, and expertise.

Since YouTube has much longer videos than TikTok or Instagram Stories do, it is more effective at showing an influencer’s credibility and positive attitude toward a product. Therefore, when marketers appoint influencers, the compatibility of an influencer with a given product should be considered. For example, in the context of beauty and fashion products, selecting influencers who possess both social and physical attractiveness is crucial. Additionally, it is essential to highlight the characteristics of influencers that align with the demographic and psychological profiles of target consumers in terms of homophily based on parasocial relationships. Conversely, the expertise of the influencer should be given greater consideration in the category of electronic products such as computers and cameras. In these cases, it is essential to consider the expertise of the influencer and the applications of the product in question.

Second, it is essential to consider the emotional connection between influencers and consumers, as this can positively influence consumers’ attitudes and referrals toward a product. When influencer marketing is implemented, advertising a product by using influencers in real-life situations would be effective. This would make their followers feel an emotional attachment.

Third, it is imperative to prioritize the impact on consumer product and brand attitudes. Concentrating on enhancing brand awareness and brand attitudes rather than on product referrals would be more prudent.

Finally, the limitations of this study and directions for future research are discussed.

The present study focuses on the beauty and fashion industries, and the sample size is relatively small. Therefore, the model fitness was somewhat low. Further studies should be conducted with larger sample sizes and confirm the differences between categories. In consideration of these limitations, our objective is to develop a more comprehensive model.

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) 23K01639, “Brand Management by Integrating Behavioral Data and Psychological Measures of Engagement,” and same Research (C) 21K01755, “Branding Research Based on the Brand’s Meaning of Existence: A Study of D-to-C Brands.” This study is a substantially revised and more accurate version of the Japan Marketing Association Working Paper Vol. 8, No. 7, “The parasocial relationship between influencers and consumers: The impact on the product attitude and purchase intention” (published on March 04, 2022). We would like to thank Professor Hikaru Yamamoto, Keio University, Senior Editor, and the conference secretariat for this valuable opportunity.

Data Availability

The dataset generated and analyzed in this article is available from the author(s) upon reasonable request.

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Ruidan Yan

I completed a Master’s degree at the Graduate School of Commerce, Doshisha University, in 2022. Since April 2022, I have worked in Digital Marketing at Tineco Intelligent Technology Co., Ltd.

Hiroyuki Takahashi

Professor, Faculty of Commerce and Graduate School of Commerce, Doshisha University. 1st Grade Retail Marketing Specialist/Professional Social Researcher/Director, Generation Z Insight Institute.