カントリーステレオタイプにおける温かさと有能さ

― 訪日意図の国際比較分析 ―

Abstract

This study focuses on tourists from long-haul non-Asian countries and aims to examine how country stereotypes are formed and how they influence travel intentions toward Japan. In particular, we conceptualize country stereotypes along two dimensions—warmth and competence—and investigate how these dimensions are modified by past visitation to Japan, as well as how their effects on travel intentions differ across developed and emerging markets. In Study 1, using data collected from four non-Asian countries, we examine the relationship between past visitation to Japan and country stereotypes. The results show that past visitation increases perceptions of warmth more strongly than perceptions of competence. In Study 2, we conduct a cross-national comparative analysis of consumers from a developed market (the UK) and an emerging market (Mexico). The findings indicate that warmth is a stronger determinant of travel intentions in the developed-market context, whereas competence is a stronger driver in the emerging-market context. By offering a more nuanced understanding of country stereotypes and travel intentions, this study contributes to the international marketing literature and provides useful implications for business managers and policy-makers in the international tourism industry.

Translated Abstract

本研究は，非アジア圏からの長距離観光客を対象に，カントリーステレオタイプがどのように形成されるのか，および，それが訪日意図にどのような影響を及ぼすのかを検討する。具体的には，カントリーステレオタイプを，温かさ（warmth）と有能さ（competence）から捉えて，これらの次元が過去の訪日経験によってどのように変化するのか，さらに，それらが訪問意図に及ぼす影響が先進国市場と新興国市場でどのように異なるのかを探究する。Study 1では，4か国から収集したデータを用いて，訪日経験有無とカントリーステレオタイプの関係を検討した。分析の結果，訪日経験は，有能さの知覚よりも温かさの知覚を強く高めることが示された。Study 2では，先進国市場（英国）と新興国市場（メキシコ）を対象に国際比較分析を行った。分析の結果，先進国市場の文脈では，温かさが訪問意図のより重要な規定要因となる一方，新興国市場の文脈では，有能さがより重要な規定要因となることが示された。本研究は，カントリーステレオタイプと訪問意図の理解を進展させることによって，国際マーケティング研究の前進に一定の貢献を成すとともに，観光業界における実務家および政策立案者に対して実務的示唆を提示する。

I.  Introduction

Over the past decade, the total number of inbound tourists to Japan has increased sharply; however, a closer look at the composition reveals substantial regional disparities. In particular, the number of visitors from non-Asian regions remains considerably lower than that from Asian countries (JNTO, 2025). This suggests that such regions represent markets with strong potential as future tourist sources. Moreover, attracting tourists from long-haul markets is likely to generate economic benefits, such as longer stays and higher per capita spending (Bianchi & Milberg, 2017; Bianchi et al., 2017; McKercher, 2008). For this reason, finding how to attract tourists from geographically and culturally distant countries is regarded as a key challenge for future tourism development in Japan. Accordingly, identifying the factors that lead non-Asian foreign tourists to visit Japan is of strategic importance for policy-makers and business managers in tourism-related industries (Hirota, 2020; M. Ono, 2024).

In academic research, a wide range of factors, including destination image (Campo et al., 2024), cultural distance (Ng et al., 2007), country image (Terasaki et al., 2024), affinity (Oberecker & Diamantopoulos, 2011) and animosity (Rojas-Méndez et al., 2022), are examined as determinants of the intention to visit a foreign country. Among these factors, country stereotypes have attracted increasing attention in recent research (Feng et al., 2022; Micevski et al., 2021) and are likely to play a particularly important role in shaping the behavioral intentions of long-haul visitors, who are geographically distant from Japan and relatively unfamiliar with the country. On the basis of the stereotype content model, consumers perceive and evaluate countries along two dimensions: warmth and competence (Chen et al., 2014; Diamantopoulos et al., 2021). For example, exposure to information suggesting that people in a given country are sincere and kind may foster stereotypes of warmth, whereas information indicating technological advancement or well-developed infrastructure and services may enhance perceptions of competence (Feng et al., 2022; Kolbl et al., 2026; Micevski et al., 2021). Prior studies show that such country stereotypes positively influence individuals’ intentions to visit the country (Micevski et al., 2021). These studies conclude that marketing communications aimed at forming and strengthening stereotypes of warmth and competence are effective at attracting foreign tourists. Research on country stereotypes is meaningful in that it extends the stereotype content model to the country level and applies it to tourism marketing (Feng et al., 2022; Kolbl et al., 2026; Micevski et al., 2021).

In this way, although country stereotypes provide a useful lens for examining visit intentions, there is still room to extend the insights of prior research in the following two respects. First, it overlooks the possibility that the relative impact of a country’s warmth and competence on visit intention may vary depending on context. Second, it does not consider the possibility that consumers’ country stereotypes may change. In other words, existing studies implicitly assume that the effects of warmth and competence on visit intention are equal and that evaluations of a country’s warmth and competence, once formed, remain stable. In reality, however, the relative importance of these two dimensions may differ depending on contextual factors such as consumers’ home-country culture and economy (Cadogan, 2010; Kikumori et al., 2025; Osburg et al., 2024). Furthermore, people’s stereotypes about a country are likely to change substantially through direct first-hand experiences, such as past visitation (Beerli & Martin, 2004; Chen et al., 2014; Terasaki et al., 2024). If the effects of warmth and competence on visit intentions differ by context and if country stereotypes themselves change depending on past visitation, understanding these relationships is critically important for the design of tourism marketing strategies; such knowledge directly influences strategic decisions about whether to emphasize a destination country’s warmth or its competence when communicating with potential foreign tourists.

Accordingly, this study seeks to advance the country stereotype literature by investigating its role in shaping travel intentions among tourists from long-haul non-Asian countries. Specifically, we examine two research questions: (1) how past visitation to Japan affects country stereotypes (warmth and competence) and (2) how the effects of country stereotypes on the intention to visit Japan differ between consumers in developed (the UK) and emerging (Mexico) markets. This study makes several contributions to the international marketing and tourism literature. First, it shows that Japan tends to be perceived as more competent than warm in the context of travel, thereby extending country-of-origin research to the tourism domain. Second, the findings indicate that past visitation affects the two stereotype dimensions differently, with direct experience strengthening warmth perceptions more than competence perceptions. Third, by comparing consumers in developed and emerging markets, the results demonstrate that the relative impact of warmth and competence on visit intention is context dependent, highlighting cross-national variation in country stereotype effects.

II.  Theoretical Background

1.  Stereotype content model

Stereotypes refer to overly simplified and generalized beliefs about the characteristics of social groups, and they function as heuristics that play important cognitive roles in simplifying information processing (Maheswaran, 1994). The stereotype content model is a theoretical framework that conceptualizes stereotypes about a particular target along two fundamental dimensions—warmth and competence—and examines how these dimensions influence people’s behavioral tendencies (Fiske et al., 2002). Warmth represents a cognitive evaluation of whether the target is perceived as having intentions that are beneficial or harmful to oneself. When those intentions are viewed as cooperative, kind, and benevolent, a positive perception of warmth is formed; in contrast, when the intentions are seen as competitive, hostile, or indifferent, a negative perception of coldness emerges (Cuddy et al., 2007; Fiske et al., 2002). In contrast, competence refers to evaluations of the target’s ability to enact those intentions. When the target is perceived as having high status and being worthy of respect, a positive perception of competence is formed, whereas when the target is seen as low in status and not worthy of respect, a negative perception of incompetence is formed (Cuddy et al., 2007; Fiske et al., 2002). Thus, the stereotype content model argues that stereotypes are not simple evaluations of liking or disliking; rather, their content is two-dimensional and reflects cognitive appraisals rather than purely affective reactions. Importantly, warmth and competence are not necessarily correlated: one dimension may be positive, while the other is negative; both may be high, or both may be low, leading to a variety of possible combinations (Caprariello et al., 2009; Cuddy et al., 2009).

The stereotype content model has been applied beyond social groups to a wide range of targets in marketing research, including countries (Barbarossa & Mandler, 2021; Diamantopoulos et al., 2017), brands (Davvetas & Halkias, 2019; Kolbl et al., 2019), and organizations (Aaker et al., 2010; Hoang et al., 2023). These studies show that consumers also form stereotypes of such entities along the two dimensions of warmth and competence, which in turn exert substantial influence on consumer behavior. Among these applications, country stereotypes are regarded as a form of country-of-origin construct and are expected to contribute to further theoretical development in country-of-origin research (Diamantopoulos et al., 2017). Country stereotypes refer to socially shared beliefs about the typical traits, intentions, and behaviors of people living in a particular country (Maheswaran, 1994). In this context, warmth reflects perceptions of the intentions, cooperativeness, and friendliness of a country’s residents, whereas competence reflects perceptions of how effectively and capably those residents can enact their intentions (Diamantopoulos et al., 2021; Micevski et al., 2021). Country stereotypes not only serve as a basis for evaluating and judging products and brands associated with the target country but also influence the formation of visit intention (Kolbl et al., 2026; Micevski et al., 2021). Building on and refining these findings, we examine how past visitation to a given country alters country stereotypes and how the relationship between country stereotypes and visit intention differs depending on consumers’ country of residence.

2.  Overview of studies

We propose that nonvisitors and past visitors to Japan have different perceptions of country stereotypes; in other words, we consider that past visitation to Japan influences country stereotypes. Specifically, we expect that past visitation to Japan has a stronger effect on perceptions of a country’s warmth than on perceptions of its competence. Furthermore, we argue that the effects of country stereotypes on intentions to visit Japan differ across markets: in developed markets, warmth has a stronger influence on visit intention than competence, whereas in emerging markets, competence has a stronger impact on visit intention than warmth.

As shown in Figure 1, we test our hypotheses through two studies. In Study 1, we examine the relationship between past visitation and country stereotypes using data collected from four developed non-Asian countries. In Study 2, we collect consumer data from a developed market (the UK) and an emerging market (Mexico) to test the full conceptual model.

Figure 1　 Overview of our studies

3.  Past visitation and country stereotypes

Existing studies indicate that past visitation to a destination is an important factor in shaping and updating the perceptions and evaluations of that country (Beerli & Martin, 2004). Although country stereotypes are formed on the basis of various sources of information, including indirect information from the media and other people, they are likely to be revised when individuals acquire first-hand knowledge through actual visit experiences (Yoo & Katsumata, 2023). Many tourists who visit Japan have favorable experiences related to Japanese norms, institutions, technologies, and services. For example, they may experience punctual public transportation systems; the widespread presence of 24-hour convenience stores with a rich assortment of products; adherence to social rules such as orderly queuing at tourist sites and restaurants; high levels of service characterized by an omotenashi spirit; free and clean public toilets; clean streets without litter; the safety of a society where vending machines are rarely vandalized; helpful interactions with local people even when Japanese is not spoken; and the vibrancy of pop culture (Lee & Hyun, 2016; A. Ono et al., 2020; Park et al., 2017). Such experiences of safety and interactions with kind and hospitable Japanese people strengthen stereotypes of Japan’s warmth as a “good” country. Additionally, the convenience of transportation and services reinforces perceptions of Japan’s competence as a highly capable country.

However, the effects of past visitation to Japan on the two dimensions of country stereotypes may not be symmetrical. In general, Japan’s country image tends to be favorable, and one major reason is its advanced technology and high-quality products symbolized by the country-of-origin cue Made in Japan (Chinen et al., 2000; Gürhan-Canli & Maheswaran, 2000). Even without having visited Japan, consumers around the world are exposed to Japanese global brands such as automobiles and electronics and have already experienced itstechnological sophistication. Thus, their baseline expectations of Japan’s competence are likely to be higher than those of its warmth. When such consumers have experiences in Japan that enhance both the perception of warmth and that of competence, these experiences produce a greater positive shift in stereotypes of warmth than in stereotypes of competence. Therefore,

H1a. Past visitation to Japan is positively related to country warmth.

H1b. Past visitation to Japan is positively related to country competence.

H2. Past visitation to Japan has a stronger positive relationship with country warmth than country competence.

4.  Country stereotypes and travel intention

Long-haul travelers are likely to rely on stereotypes about a destination country when they form their visit intentions, as they are relatively unfamiliar with that distant country. Country warmth reflects perceptions of whether its people are cooperative and friendly, thereby fostering a sense that the destination is a welcoming place and generating positive feelings among tourists (Kolbl et al., 2026; Micevski et al., 2021). Accordingly, the more strongly consumers perceive Japan as high in warmth, the more likely they are to develop an intention to visit Japan (Diamantopoulos et al., 2021).

In contrast, country competence is related to perceptions of aspects such as the quality of infrastructure, service standards, safety, and convenience, which shape expectations regarding the comfort and security of travel in that country (Kolbl et al., 2026; Micevski et al., 2021). Thus, the more strongly consumers perceive Japan as high in competence, the more likely they are to develop an intention to visit Japan. Therefore,

H3. Country warmth is positively related with intention to visit Japan.

H4. Country competence is positively related with intention to visit Japan.

5.  Comparisons across emerging and developed countries

The relative strength of the effects of country warmth and competence on intention to visit Japan may vary depending on consumers’ socioeconomic context (Masiero et al., 2020). In particular, whether consumers reside in a developed or an emerging market is likely to create substantial differences in what they seek from a travel destination.

Consumers in developed countries are generally accustomed to advanced infrastructure and efficient services in their daily lives and tend to enjoy comfortable and convenient living conditions (Burgess & Steenkamp, 2006). Moreover, developed societies often exhibit trends such as nuclear family structures and a stronger separation between work and private life, which may increase feelings of social isolation and weaker interpersonal ties (Hofstede et al., 2010). Therefore, when evaluating travel destinations, consumers in developed countries are likely to place relatively greater importance on aspects such as kindness and interpersonal warmth, rather than convenience.

In contrast, consumers in emerging countries often experience constraints in terms of infrastructure and services in their daily lives (Sheth, 2011). However, they may also live in environments where social connectedness is stronger, such as extended family living arrangements and a closer integration of work and life (Burgess & Steenkamp, 2006). As a result, consumers in emerging countries are likely to place greater emphasis on aspects of competence—such as safety, efficiency, and technological advancement—when they form visit intentions toward a destination country. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

H5. Among consumers in a developed market (the UK), the positive relationship between country warmth and visit intention is stronger than that between country competence and visit intention.

H6. Among consumers in an emerging market (Mexico), the positive relationship between country competence and visit intention is stronger than that between country warmth and visit intention.

III.  Study 1

1.  Data collection

The data for this study were collected through Prolific, an online survey platform. Because this platform includes a large number of consumers from Western countries, particularly in Europe, it is well suited for the purpose of this study, which examines travel to Japan among consumers from non-Asian regions. Given that the survey was conducted in English, fluency in English was set as a screening criterion, and only respondents who met this requirement were included in the study.

Focusing on non-Asian markets where further growth in inbound tourism to Japan is expected and aiming to ensure geographic and cultural diversity, data were collected from four countries: the United States (Americas), Australia (Oceania), France (continental Europe), and Sweden (Northern Europe). Approximately 100 respondents were recruited from each country, resulting in a final valid sample of 401 participants. The average age of the respondents was 39.1 years; 243 were male (60.6%), and 158 were female (39.4%). With respect to past visitation to Japan, 107 respondents (26.7%) had previously visited Japan, whereas 294 (73.3%) had not. In terms of country, the proportion of respondents with past visitation was relatively high in Australia (57.0%), whereas it was lower in the United States (16.0%), France (20.0%), and Sweden (14.0%).

2.  Measures

Past visitation to Japan was measured by asking respondents whether they had ever visited Japan in the past. On the basis of their responses, the participants were classified into two groups: those with past visitation (past visitors) and those without past visitation (non-visitors). Country stereotypes toward Japan, namely, country warmth (α=0.91) and country competence (α=0.88), were each measured using four items adapted from Diamantopoulos et al. (2017). All the measurement items are presented in Table 2 of Study 2.

3.  Results

To test H1a, H1b, and H2, we conducted a mixed-design ANOVA with stereotype dimension (warmth vs. competence) as a within-subjects factor and past visitation to Japan (visitor vs. non-visitor) as a between-subjects factor. The main effect of past visitation was significant (F(1, 396)=20.53, p<0.00, partial η²=0.04), indicating that past visitation positively influences country stereotypes. As shown in Figure 2, past visitors reported more favorable stereotypes about both warmth (M=5.59, SD=1.05) and competence (M=6.24, SD=0.74) than non-visitors (warmth: M=4.95, SD=1.20; competence: M=5.99, SD=0.96), suggesting that past visitation contributes to an overall improvement in Japan’s country stereotype. Thus, H1a and H1b are supported.

Figure 2　 Results of ANOVA (Study 1)

The main effect of the stereotype dimension was also significant (F(1, 399)=282.99, p<0.00, partial η²=0.42), indicating that country competence was perceived as significantly greater than country warmth. This suggests that consumers hold stereotypes of Japan as being more competent than warm.

The interaction effect between past visitation and the stereotype dimension was significant (F(1, 399)=9.74, p<0.01, partial η²=0.008), indicating that the effect of past visitation differed between the warmth and competence dimensions. Specifically, past visitors reported significantly greater perceptions of warmth than non-visitors (mean difference=0.64, p=0.03). In contrast, the corresponding difference in competence perceptions was smaller (0.25) and not statistically significant (p=0.21). This suggests that past visitation enhances warmth perceptions rather than competence evaluations. Therefore, H2 is supported.

4.  Discussion

The purpose of Study 1 was to examine how past visitation to Japan influences country stereotypes. As hypothesized, past visitation has favorable effects on country stereotypes, with a stronger effect on warmth than on competence. In addition, non-Asian consumers tended to perceive competence more strongly than warmth, suggesting that Japan is viewed primarily as a technologically advanced and highly convenient country rather than as one characterized by interpersonal kindness and warmth. In Study 2, past visitation is treated as a continuous variable measured by the number of visits to Japan, allowing for a more fine-grained analysis. In addition, Study 2 conducts a comparative analysis using data from two countries to examine how country stereotypes influence intentions to visit Japan.

IV.  Study 2

1.  Data collection

The data for Study 2 were collected using the online survey platform Prolific, as in Study 1. Using Prolific’s prescreening function, only respondents who were fluent in English were eligible to participate. The objective of Study 2 was to compare the effects of country stereotypes on the intention to visit Japan between a developed market and an emerging market. In line with this objective, the United Kingdom and Mexico were selected as the focal countries.

The UK is a highly developed economy with a mature outbound tourism market. In contrast, Mexico, an emerging economy, has experienced growth in its middle-income population and increasing participation in international travel, reflecting the rapid development of its international tourism behavior. Despite differences in their stages of economic development, both countries represent promising potential markets for inbound tourism to Japan. Comparing these two countries enables us to examine whether differences in economic development (developed vs. emerging) shape the relationship between country stereotypes and visit intention.

After data cleaning, the final valid sample consisted of 176 respondents in total (96 from the UK and 80 from Mexico). The mean age of the sample was 42.6 years, with 57.4% male and 42.6% female respondents. With respect to past visitation to Japan, 18.7% of the total sample had visited Japan at least once.

2.  Measures

The measurement items used in this study are presented in Table 1. All the constructs were measured using multi-item scales adopted from prior research, with minor adaptations to fit the context of international travel to Japan. The dependent variable, intention to visit Japan, was measured using three items adapted from Su et al. (2022). Country warmth and country competence were each measured using four items adapted from Diamantopoulos et al. (2017). Past visitation to Japan was measured using a single-item ordinal scale adapted from Rasoolimanesh et al. (2025), which asked respondents how many times they had visited Japan.

Table 1　Constructs and scale items

To control for individual differences that may influence the intention to visit Japan, several control variables were included in the analysis. The highest level of education was measured on a five-point scale ranging from secondary education to a doctoral degree adopted from Micevski et al. (2021). Household income was measured using a seven-category scale adopted from Kim et al. (2012). Place of residence (capital city, urban area, and rural area) and travel frequency were measured using existing categorical scales employed by Micevski et al. (2021). These control variables were included to reduce potential confounding effects.

3.  Results

A multigroup structural equation model was estimated using two national samples: a developed market (the UK) and an emerging market (Mexico). Age, sex, education, income, residence dummy, travel frequency, and past visitation to Japan were included in the model as control variables for the intention to visit Japan.

H1a and H1b propose that past visitation to Japan positively influences country warmth and country competence, respectively. These hypotheses are supported if the path coefficients from past visitation to warmth and competence are positive and significant. As shown in Table 2 and Figure 3, in the UK sample, the path coefficient from past visitation to warmth is positive and significant (β=0.23, p=0.03), whereas the coefficient to competence is not significant (β=0.19, p=0.11). In the Mexico sample, neither the path to warmth (β=0.08, p=0.49) nor the path to competence (β=0.14, p=0.41) is significant. These findings provide partial support for H1a but do not support H1b.

Table 2　Multigroup structural model estimation (Study 2)

Figure 3　 Graphical representation of the multigroup SEM estimation (Study 2)

H2 posits that past visitation has a stronger effect on country warmth than on country competence. This hypothesis is supported if the Wald test indicates a significant difference between the two path coefficients. The Wald test results show that the difference between the two coefficients is not statistically significant in either the UK (χ²(1)=0.69, p=0.41) or Mexico (χ²(1)=0.06, p=0.81). Therefore, H2 is not supported in Study 2.

H3 and H4 propose that country warmth and country competence positively influence the intention to visit Japan, respectively. As shown in Table 2, in the UK sample, the path coefficient from country warmth to the intention to visit Japan is positive and significant (β=0.41, p<0.00), whereas the coefficient from country competence is not significant (β=0.07, p=0.46). These results indicate that in the UK, country warmth enhances the intention to visit Japan, whereas competence does not directly affect this intention. In contrast, in the Mexican sample, the path from country competence to the intention to visit Japan is positive and significant (β=0.48, p=0.01), whereas the path from country warmth is not significant (β=0.14, p=0.19). Thus, H3 is supported only in the UK data, and H4 is supported only in the Mexico data.

Finally, H5 and H6 argue that the relative importance of warmth and competence differs between developed and emerging market contexts. H5 predicts that in the UK, the effect of country warmth on the intention to visit Japan is stronger than that of country competence. A Wald test comparing the two path coefficients indicates that the difference is significant (χ²(1)=2.90, p=0.04). Thus, H5 is supported, suggesting that warmth is relatively more important than competence in shaping visit intention in the developed market context. H6 predicts that, in Mexico, the effect of country competence on the intention to visit Japan is stronger than that of country warmth. The Wald test shows that this difference is also significant (χ²(1)=4.96, p=0.01). Thus, H6 is supported, indicating that competence is relatively more important than warmth in shaping visit intention in the emerging market context.

With respect to the control variables, several significant effects were observed. In the UK, gender has a positive and significant effect on the intention to visit Japan (β=0.24, p<0.01), such that men have greater visit intention than women do. In Mexico, both age and sex have significant effects. Age has a negative effect on intention (β=−0.26, p<0.05), suggesting that older respondents report lower visit intention. Gender has a negative and significant effect (β=−0.26, p<0.05), indicating that women exhibit greater visit intention than men do. In contrast, education, household income, travel frequency, and past visitation do not significantly affect the intention to visit Japan. These findings suggest that country stereotypes play a more important role than demographic factors in shaping visit intention.

4.  Discussion

The purpose of Study 2 was twofold. First, as a replication of Study 1, it aimed to test the effect of past visitation on country stereotypes. Second, it examined the effects of country stereotypes on the intention to visit Japan and compared these effects between a developed market (the UK) and an emerging market (Mexico). The results show that H1a and H1b, concerning the effect of past visitation on country stereotypes, received only partial support, and no evidence was found to support H2, which predicted a differential impact of past visitation on the two stereotype dimensions. H3 and H4, regarding the effects of country stereotypes on the intention to visit Japan, were also only partially supported. In contrast, H5 and H6, which address cross-national differences in the relative effects of country stereotype dimensions, were supported in both cases. The results of hypothesis testing in Study 1 and Study 2 are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3　Summary of hypothesis testing results

V.  Conclusion

1.  Theoretical implications

Our study contributes to the literature in three ways. First, it is the first to examine the effects of country stereotypes in the context of visiting Japan, thereby contributing to both the country stereotype literature and country-of-origin research related to Japan. Although not formally hypothesized, Study 1 and Study 2 show that, across all countries, perceptions of competence are higher than those of warmth. These findings suggest that Japan is viewed more as a competent country than as a warm one. While country-of-origin research represents Japan in particular ways, the present results provide new evidence by demonstrating this relative dominance of competence over warmth in the tourism context. In this respect, our findings offer a novel contribution to the literature.

Second, this study demonstrates that the two dimensions of the stereotype content model are not equally influenced by past visitation. Across multiple analyses, past visitation to Japan is found to have a stronger effect on perceptions of warmth than on perceptions of competence. These findings suggest that perceptions of Japan’s competence may already be formed to some extent through indirect information sources such as global brands and media, whereas perceptions of warmth are more strongly updated through interpersonal contact and direct experience. By showing that stereotypes of Japan in terms of warmth and competence are shaped differently by past visitation, this study extends the existing stereotype content model research.

Third, this research shows that the relative impact of warmth and competence on the intention to visit Japan is context dependent. Prior research generally assumes that the two dimensions exert roughly similar effects; however, our findings indicate that their relative importance varies depending on consumers’ country of origin. Specifically, among consumers in a developed market (the UK), warmth is a stronger determinant of visit intention, whereas among consumers in an emerging market (Mexico), competence plays a more central role. By uncovering this cross-national variation in the effects of warmth and competence, we contribute to further advancing country stereotype research.

2.  Managerial implications

The findings of this study offer important managerial implications for international tourism marketers, including policy-makers promoting inbound tourism to Japan and managers of tourism-related firms. The results show that the impact of country stereotypes—warmth versus competence—on visit intention depends on the development level of consumers’ home country. Specifically, in a developed market (the UK), warmth is the primary driver of visit intention, whereas in an emerging market (Mexico), competence has a stronger effect. This finding indicates that a uniform approach to promoting Japan’s attractiveness is limited and requires country-specific marketing strategies. For developed markets, promotions should emphasize people-centered aspects such as kindness, local interactions, hospitality, and cultural experiences, highlighting Japan’s warmth. In contrast, for emerging markets, promotions should focus on safety and convenience—such as transportation reliability, cleanliness, service quality, and infrastructure—emphasizing competence.

In addition, this study shows that past visitation enhances stereotypes about Japan, particularly its warmth. Visiting Japan tends to positively influence perceptions of Japanese people’s kindness and social atmosphere. This suggests that attracting first-time visitors is not only a short-term demand strategy but also an investment in long-term country image formation. A warm image formed through direct experience may spread via revisit intentions, word-of-mouth, and social media. Therefore, reducing barriers to first-time visits—such as improving visa systems and multilingual information—can contribute to the long-term growth of Japan’s tourism industry.

VI.  Limitations and Future Research Directions

This study has several limitations, which suggest future research directions. First, although this study focuses on the two dimensions of warmth and competence that are emphasized in the stereotype content model (Fiske et al., 2002), it does not examine the role of emotions originally proposed in the model. Future research should investigate such emotions associated with warmth and competence in terms of country stereotypes (Cuddy et al., 2007; Cuddy et al., 2009). Second, while this study includes multiple countries, the scope of cross-national comparisons remains limited. In particular, Study 2 focuses on only one developed market and one emerging market, which constrains the generalizability of the findings. Future studies should incorporate a wider range of countries and regions to examine whether similar patterns are observed across different cultural and institutional contexts. Third, this study treats visit intention as the primary behavioral outcome. Future research could extend the analysis to downstream behavioral consequences, such as destination recommendation (Fandos-Herrera et al., 2025) and word-of-mouth generation (Kikumori & Ishii, 2024), thereby further enhancing the practical relevance of country stereotype research. Fourth, although this study applies country stereotypes to the context of consumers’ travel intentions, this perspective may also be applicable in B2B contexts. In business-to-business settings, country stereotypes may function as heuristics regarding potential exchange partners and thus may influence international partner selection (Ishii & Kikumori, 2024; Kikumori & Ishii, 2023) and interfirm value cocreation (Luu, Cadeaux, et al., 2018; Luu, Ngo, et al., 2018). Future research is encouraged to explore these possibilities in greater depth.

Acknowledgments

We would like to appreciate the Editor-in-Chief, Professor Akinori Ono, for providing us with the opportunity to develop this research project and offering helpful comments. We would also like to thank Dr. Ryosuke Takeuchi for his constructive feedback.

Data Availability

The dataset generated and analyzed in this article is openly available in J-STAGE Data.

• 1) Country stereotypes and travel intentions toward Japan

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose regarding this manuscript.

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Ryuta Ishii

Ryuta Ishii is Associate Professor of Marketing at Ritsumeikan University. His research interests include channel management and international marketing strategy, particularly in international marketing channels, global business-to-business relationships, and cross-cultural comparative research. He has published on these topics in Industrial Marketing Management, International Marketing Review, Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, Quarterly Journal of Marketing, International Journal of Marketing & Distribution, and other journals.

Yudai Maruyama

Yudai Maruyama is a Ph.D. student and a RARA student fellow at Ritsumeikan University. His current research interests include word-of-mouth, social media usage, and consumer behaviors. He has presented his research at leading academic conferences, such as Japan Society of Marketing and Distribution (JSMD), Global Marketing Conference (GMC) and International Conference of Asian Marketing Associations (ICAMA).

Ngoc Luu

Ngoc Luu is Associate Professor of Marketing at University of Sussex, United Kingdom. She received her Master’s degree from Ritsumeikan University, Japan, and her PhD from the University of New South Wales, Australia. Her research interests focus on buyer–supplier relationships, entrepreneurial marketing, and small business management. She has published in Long Range Planning, Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Small Business Management, and Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, among others.

Mai Kikumori

Mai Kikumori is Associate Professor of Marketing at Ritsumeikan University, Japan. Her research interests include communication and marketing, particularly regarding word-of-mouth, social media, international advertising, and cross-cultural consumer behavior. Her research has been published in International Marketing Review, Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, Journal of International Consumer Marketing, Quarterly Journal of Marketing, and other academic journals.