In recent years, NGOs in Japan have been placing increased emphasis on local communities as well as on their activity fields in foreign countries. Such a movement is called “community-driven international cooperation, ” and it refers to a local approach to international cooperation, not by the central government or national-level NGOs, but rather by smaller, community-based NGOs, especially in nonmetropolitan areas. Although these movements can be considered to be an important research theme in geography, so far very little research has been conducted on NGOs in Japan.
This paper discusses the potential and problems of community-driven international cooperation and attempts to clarify the various roles of local communities in relation to NGOs' activities. The author also explores the possibility of NGO activities in nonmetropolitan areas across Japan. Representatives of 12 NGOs, located in Hiroshima, Okinawa, Tokushima, Ehime, Fukuoka, and Saga Prefectures, were interviewed between July 2003 and November 2005. The findings are outlined below.
Community-driven international cooperation by NGOs can be considered as a type of strategic activity within local communities, which crosses political, economic, social, and cultural barriers on a global scale. NGOs utilize unique or universal resources within the local community, not only to obtain funds and supporters, but also to gain local knowledge, skills, and experience that can be applied to international cooperation. To establish trust or networks with the various agents that are required for this process, NGOs work to create links through both intra- and interlocal relationships. Such networks and trust-based relationships can influence the consciousness of local citizens who support NGOs, and these in turn also enable NGOs to continue their activities. In addition, local communities can function as a basis for establishing NGOs' legitimacy, which consists of historical legitimacy and has structural similarities with other situations in the world system and the national urban system. Hiroshima, for example, can be a unique place for peace building NGOs' legitimacy, because this city has the perspective of atomic destruction as well as the reconstruction thereafter.
Although the roles of local communities have some negative aspects, for example, conflicts of interest within local communities, it should be pointed out that community-driven international cooperation has many positive features as mentioned above and can also play an important role, especially for NGOs in nonmetropolitan areas of Japan.

View full abstract

The purpose of this study was to clarify the relationship between the intensity of connective rainfall in central Tokyo and the distribution of surface temperature and wind systems over the Kanto Plain in summer. Data sets used in this study include the hourly data on Radar-AMeDAS rainfall with a spatial resolution of about 5km×5km, surface temperature, and wind data at 92 AMeDAS stations for July and August 1995-1999.
First, 192 days were selected, during which neither synoptic-scale disturbances nor rainfall systems appeared in and around the Kanto district, using daily weather charts at 00 UTC and Radar-AMeDAS rainfall data. The rainfall events that occurred during these days were derived from the connective system, and 25 cases of convective rainfall events were recorded over the central Tokyo area (15km×15km). The rainfall intensity in central Tokyo is defined as the maximum hourly rainfall within the area during each rainfall period. Moreover, wind data at AMeDAS stations were converted into zonal and meridional wind components, and interpolated to approximately 11km interval grid points to calculate wind divergence.
Intense rainfall occurred in central Tokyo when the surface wind system with southerly wind from Sagami Bay and easterly wind from Kashima-Nada was observed (type E-S: 5 cases). In contrast, when northeasterly wind (type NE: 12 cases) or southerly wind (type S: 6 cases) blew over the Kanto Plain, less intense rainfall occurred. In the case of intense rainfall (type E-S), a strong convergence area was observed over central Tokyo because of the southerly and easterly winds from Sagami Bay and Kashima-Nada. A weak convergence area appeared in cases of less intense rainfall (types NE and S) in central Tokyo, corresponding to the decrease in the speed of northeasterly (type NE) or southerly (type S) wind blowing over the Kanto Plain.
Regardless of the rainfall intensity, the temperature over the inland area including central Tokyo was rather uniform, and the low-temperature area was distributed only in the coastal area of the Kanto Plain. Moreover, the correlation coefficients between the rainfall intensity in central Tokyo and the temperature difference between Tokyo and the respective AMeDAS stations were significant only in the coastal area. A decrease in temperature in the coastal area was observed several hours before the occurrence of convective rainfall in central Tokyo, corresponding to the appearance of cold air advection in the sea. Next, the temperature difference between Tokyo and the surrounding area was enhanced, and a relative high-temperature area appeared over the inland area including central Tokyo. That is, the high temperature area over the inland area in these cases was a result of the wind system blowing from the sea. Therefore, it is difficult to explain the occurrence of the convergence area and intensity of convective rainfall in central Tokyo based on the temperature distribution alone.
Before the temperature difference between Tokyo and surrounding area was enhanced, a change in the wind system occurred corresponding to the development of a thermal local low over the Chubu Mountains, which is considered to be more influential than the high temperature area over the inland Kanto Plain for the wind system as far as rainfall intensity is concerned.

View full abstract

This study examined the regional differences in the prevalence of allergic rhinitis among high school students. Several epidemiologic studies based on otologic examinations have so far shown that there are significant regional differences in the prevalence rates of allergic rhinitis, particularly between urban and rural areas of residence. Those studies suggested that the prevalence rates are influenced by external factors such as the living environment as well as internal factors such as previous illness and individual constitution.
It is, however, necessary to introduce other new perspectives to the geographic study for analyzing the differences in prevalence rates, while considering present lifestyles with recent advances in transportation. Thus, we especially focus on residential and school sites in association with the medical records of high school students and living environments. The data for this study were collected through a physical nasal examination and a questionnaire survey of students in the Iwakuni region, west of Hiroshima, Japan.
The results of binomial logistic regression modelling show that, as well as previous asthma and smoking habits among respondents' familymembers, the commuting patterns of students significantly influence the prevalence of allergic rhinitis. Students commuting to urban areas are at higher risk of having allergic rhinitis, although there are no regional differences in the prevalence of allergic rhinitis on the basis of residence. The polluted environment in urban areas during the daytime increases the prevalence of rhintis among high school students.

View full abstract