This study evaluates selected soil properties and maps these under different cropping patterns of Sipintharyar village, Zeyarthiri Township, Myanmar. A total of 130 soil samples were collected at a depth of 0-20 cm, with sample points selected using a Global Positioning System. Soil fertility maps were created using Kriging interpolation in ArcGIS software 10.5. Soil textures in the study area were loam, loamy sand, clay loam and sandy loam. The soils were strongly acidic to moderately alkaline and contained a very low status of soil organic matter (84%), available potassium (89%) while total nitrogen was at a medium (56.92%) level. The coefficient of variation (CV) showed that soil pH was the least variable (9.91%) parameter examined, with mean values ranging from 4.95 to 8.47, while available potassium was highly variable (86.95%) with content values ranging from 1 to 578 ppm. Other selected properties such as bulk density, total nitrogen, CN ratio, electrical conductivity and soil organic matter were found, respectively, to have the following variabilities; 11.68%, 33.84%, 34.86%, 72.23% and 52.07%. Levels of soil organic matter were highly significant, and positively correlated with total nitrogen and available potassium. These variations in soil properties are probably related to the different cropping patterns and fertility management practices employed in the study area.

Solid waste disposal is the most pressing problem facing mankind throughout the world. The solid waste management plays a significant role to create a sustainable environment. Some vegetable wastes such as rice husk, cotton husk, coconut husk, pigeon-pea husk and chicken manure were selected for chemical analysis. The effective microorganism (EM) solution was prepared from kitchen vegetable wastes except onion and garlic peels to ferment for two months. The microorganisms that contain in prepared EM solution were studied by using microscopic morphology. The pH of prepared EM solution was measured by using pH meter. The compost was prepared from the vegetable waste materials and prepared EM solution by using aerobic method. The yield percent of compost was determined by calculation method. The yield percent of prepare compost was found to 55%. The mineral contents of compost and soil sample were measured by using EDXRF spectroscopy. The physicochemical properties of vegetable wastes, prepare compost and soil sample were determined. Planting the seedlings of some selected useful vegetables in various ratios of the prepare compost and soil sample. The growth rates of plant rates were found to be effective by the planting experiment.

Precise information on the spatial variability of soil is a crucial component for productive intensive agriculture, sustainable development, and the management of natural resources. The primary purpose of the study was to investigate the spatial variability of soil properties of the study site at Yezin Agricultural University Field, Myanmar using geostatistics. A total of 94 composite soil samples were collected from a depth of 0 to 20 cm, in a systematic grid (50 x 50 m²) at the site in May 2019. Soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), soil organic matter (SOM), total soil nitrogen (TSN), available phosphorus (Ava-P), and available potassium (Ava-K) were measured using standard analytical methods. Data were analyzed geostatistically based on semivariogram. The exponential model best fitted the semivariogram for pH, EC, Ava-P, and Ava-K; SOM was adapted from the Gaussian model while TSN was adapted from the spherical model. The nugget/sill ratio showed a strong spatial dependence exists for EC, Ava-P, and Ava-K and a moderate spatial dependence for pH, SOM, and TSN. Most of the soil was found to be strongly acidic. It was also found that EC, SOM, and Ava-P are very low in most of the study area. Most of the study area was found to have low TSN levels, while Ava-K content was low over the entire area. With such an analysis, it is possible to plan better nutrient management practices for agricultural production and environmental protection. Therefore, geostatistical analysis with ordinary kriging is a useful tool for studying the spatial variability of soil properties.

Assessment of associated insects and leaf damage caused by insects is essential concerning decisions to contribute to developing suitable rehabilitation techniques. Few studies have been done to identify the insect species associated with dipterocarp species and determine the damage caused by insects and their growth performance. Six species of dipterocarps, namely: Dipterocarpus alatus (hairy leaf apitong), Hopea philippinensis (gisok-gisok), Shorea malibato (malibato), Shorea assamica (manggasinoro), Shorea polita (malaanonang), and Shorea almon, were studied. This study was conducted to determine the insect-associated fauna using the visual and handpicking method of insect collection, leaf damage assessment using the Bioleaf app, and the morphological traits (i.e., basal diameter and plant height) on the growth performance of dipterocarps. There were eight orders of insects associated with the dipterocarps: Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Heteroptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Odonata, and Orthoptera. There was a significant difference (p ≤ 0.05) in the leaf damage among the six dipterocarps species after 25 months from planting. Shorea assamica had the highest leaf damage (8.68% ± 0.09), and Shorea almon had the least leaf damage (2.57% ± 0.09). In terms of basal diameter, the species with the highest significant increment (p ≤ 0.05) was Shorea polita (2.49 ± 0.67 mm), while Shorea almon had the least growth increment (0.98 ± 0.67 mm) 25 months after planting. Dipterocarpus alatus grows faster for the plant height than other species with a significant increment (p ≤ 0.05) of 32.90 ± 0.19 cm, while Shorea assamica had the least increment of (4.95 ± 0.19) cm. The study indicated eight orders of insects associated with the dipterocarps showing significant damage on the S. assamica. Despite the insect association, the plants grow significantly with the rapid increase observed on D. alatus.

Soil salinity has become one of the major constraints to sustain crop production in Myanmar, especially in the dry zone areas. Salinity stress and its spatial distribution has been a useful for crop monitoring. Unevenness in early crop growth stage can support to identify yield- limiting factors such as soil salinity, nutrient availability, and soil moisture. Remote sensing techniques have been used to collect reflectance numbers from crop canopies and to analyze the vegetative index (VI). VI has been related with percentage of ground cover, chlorophyll content of plant, and nitrogen use efficiency. This study aims to monitor the influence of salinity stress on the growth, yield and chlorophyll content of rice by using remote sensing techniques. This study was conducted in the salt-affected soils at Myittha Township, the central dry zone of Myanmar during the rainy season of 2019. Electrical conductivity (EC) and chlorophyll content in rice plant were collected at early growth and tillering stages of rice. Sentinel-2 satellite imagery was used in the analysis for those two growth stages. Total grain yield of rice was also measured. The acquired images analysis was implemented with ArcGIS 10.7 software to calculate vegetative indices. The results showed that significant relationships were found between plant chlorophyll content and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) values under different salinity levels. A relationship was also observed between NDVI and rice grain yield. Identifying the spatial distribution of salinity stress using the spectral vegetation indices would be effective for increasing rice yield in the salt-affected areas.

This study aimed to evaluate the acceptability of cashew apple jams based on a sensory evaluation test in Cambodia. Sensory evaluation tests for 2 types of cashew apple jams were conducted in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, and in Setagaya, Japan, in September 2019 for 70 persons. The jam raw materials were cashew apple, sugar, low-methoxyl pectin, and citric acid. These materials were mixed, dissolved, condensed, and prepared to 50 °Brix sugar content while heating to approximately 80°C. The jam heated to 80°C was filled in a glass bottle. We called this sample a hot-pack jam. The hot-pack jam was reheated at 90°C for 20 min in a sterilization process. After 20 min, the jam was kept at room temperature for cooling with sterilization. We called the sample with the sterilization procedure a reheated jam. The color, sweetness, acidity, taste, flavor, jelly state, smoothness, and overall score of each sample were evaluated using a five-point hedonic scale (1: hate, 2: dislike, 3: neutral, 4: like, and 5: like very much) in the sensory test. The hot-pack and reheated jams were tested by 40 panelists of Cambodian students and faculty members at the Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia (RUA), and Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan (TUA). Thirty citizens evaluated only reheated jam at a supermarket in Phnom Penh. Almost all panelists answered that the reheated jam was sweeter than the hot-pack jam. Because the scores of both jams given by panelists ranged from 3 to 4, the cashew apple jam was considered to be acceptable and had a possibility to become a new processed food in Cambodia.

This research aims to uncover how the emerging catering industry contingent to deindustrialisation changes the value chain of fresh agri-product in the Vietnamese suburban area. The results revealed that by entering both international and local businesses, the catering industry is competitive. Firstly, while the catering business in the North are small and operate on a local level those operating in the South are consolidated enterprises as they have different market conditions. Secondly, Fresh food ingredients provide direct contract with producers or wholesalers. In the south, catering companies tend to contract food wholesalers to purchase in bulk and distribute them to their branch preparation kitchens located in surrounding provinces. Third, the value chain created by catering comapny could make transactions and the volume of products handled concentrated, this could extend the transport distance of produce. However, the vertical coordination for the entire chain is inadequate. Furthermore, contract transactions are limited to only part of the chain, and the requirement for quality control is weak.

The process of seed deterioration can lead to some physiological changes, such as a progressive decrease in germinability, an increase mean time for germination, an increase in the number of abnormal seedlings and a subsequent lower tolerance to adverse storage conditions. This study was conducted to determine the seed quality losses associated with the use of different types of packaging materials used for storage under farm condition. The study was conducted in collaboration with sesame farmers in Pwintphyu Township, from August 2016 to March 2017 (pre-monsoon seed storage) and in Pakokku Township, from January 2017 to August 2017 (post-monsoon seed storage). The sesame seeds were stored in the farmers’ houses using two types of packaging materials; woven polypropylene bags and pioneer super bags. The data were recorded before storage and at two-month intervals during the eight month storage period. The results show that the germination percentage and germination index means of the pre-monsoon seeds stored in woven polypropylene bag are significantly higher than for those stored in super bags. However, the packaging material used has no significant influence on the germination percentage and germination index of post-monsoon sesame seeds. In regard to storage duration, there was significant variation in the germination percentage and germination indexes depending on storage method for both pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seeds. Although the seedling vigour measures of index I and II for pre-monsoon seeds stored in woven polypropylene bag are significantly higher than for those of seeds stored in super bags, there is no difference in seedling vigour indexes I and II for post-monsoon seeds with the use of different packaging methods. However, the seedling vigour indexes I and II of both pre- and post-monsoon seeds varied significantly with duration of storage. Germination percentage and germination indexes are different for the two packaging materials examined, for pre-monsoon sesame storage. The germination percentage and germination indexes of stored seeds in super bags are significantly lower than that in woven polypropylene bags, whereas, this effect was not observed in post-monsoon sesame. Black sesame cultivated in both pre-monsoon and post- monsoon seasons has a different dormancy period, and any effect of packaging materials on this dormancy release time is not evident, for both seasons. Therefore, hermetic (super bag) storage can be used in post-monsoon sesame without adverse effects on germination. However, without further research, hermetic storage appears to not be suitable for pre-monsoon sesame, due to its negative effect on germination.

Australia has extensive agricultural production of crops and livestock production. Regular fertilizer application maintains production rates of grain crops. Large quantities of phosphorus-based fertilizers are produced from phosphate rock by sulfuric acid extraction at designated production works at coastal locations and transported by train to distribution points in selected agricultural areas. Bulk fertilizer is stored in large sheds adjacent to railway lines and large or small trucks then make deliveries to farms. When such sites are disused or abandoned, contaminated soil may remain from fertilizer constituents. Occasionally fertilizer storage sites may have experience accidental contamination from railway engine or truck hydrocarbons. The objective of this study is to examine the extent of fertilizer contamination at agricultural storage sites, identify environmental risks associated with the handling practices of storage sites, and distinguish from other contamination from transport vehicles. Soil samples were collected at two locations using a grid-base sampling program to identify contaminants. Following preparation soils were analysed for phosphorus, sulfate, sulfur, petroleum hydrocarbons (aliphatic and aromatic), heavy metals and pesticides using standard procedures. A ’within a target area’ was used to assess contamination levels by comparing the 95% Upper Confidence Limit (UCL) of the average concentration of each analyte of concern against respective ’contamination’ criteria for industrial sites; exceedance of the 95% UCL against site criteria identified contamination. Statistical analysis of the data for different analytes in soil at fertilizer storage sites showed the relationship between contaminant levels and dispersion over respective sites and extent of contamination from fertilizer handling activity and other vehicle- related site contamination. In conclusion accurate estimation of contamination of sites can be provided using the grid-base sampling approach and 95% Upper Confidence Limit (UCL) criteria to distinguished transport vehicle-related contamination from phosphate-based fertilizer on site.

The Philippine forest land is among the top threatened biodiversity areas in the world and one of the major causes is deforestation. In rainforestation, a reforestation approach developed by Visayas State University (VSU) where pioneer tree species are planted first to copy the natural flow of forest succession. Studies on early successional tree species are limited, especially on determining the growth performance as affected by nutrient deficiency. The study was conducted under screen house condition at the Terrestrial Ecosystems Division (TED), Institute of Tropical Ecology and Environmental Management (ITEEM), VSU, Philippines. This study aimed at evaluating the effect of nutrient omission on morphological and physiological growth of Trema orientalis L. (Blume) Ulm at seedling stage. The experimental design was randomized complete block design, with 7 treatments and 3 replications with 35 seedlings in each replication which constituted a total of 735 seedlings. The root collar increment, plant height increment, number of leaves, leaf area, dry biomass and root shoot ratio were evaluated. After six months of fertilizer application, results showed that there was an increasing influence (p≤0.01) to the root collar diameter increment, plant height increment, number of leaves and leaf area specially in -Ca treatment. The biomass production and root- shoot ratio was significantly affected (p≤0.01) in control and -N treatments. Stunted growth and reduced leaf were exhibited in seedlings planted at -N and control treatments. Furthermore, the result showed that the omission of calcium has positive effects (p≤0.01) while omitting nitrogen showed negative effects (p≤0.01) on the morphology and physiology of Trema orientalis. Therefore, the omission of macronutrients at early seedling stage of Trema orientalis growth has positively (p≤0.01) and negatively (p≤0.01) affected the growth performance of the study plant.

Soil chemical environment (SCE) affects soil degradation and productivity, thus understanding of the temporal changes of SCE is important for obtaining higher soil productivity. Widely used indices of SCE included ion concentration, pH, and redox potential (ORP), but these cannot monitor SCE continuously. Previously, a study proved that continued potential measurement can represent temporal changes in the water quality at the sea floor. However, no report related to monitoring the SCE with continued potential measurement has been found. Therefore, this study proposes a method for evaluating soil ORP using continued potential measurement, and examine the method’s validity in representing changes in SCE due to soil reduction, bacteria activation, and soil oxidation. Laboratory experiments were conducted using soils from rice paddy fields. A brush-type carbon electrode was installed in the soil layer that then connected to a reference electrode for measurement of the soil ORP. Different soil conditions were created by mixing the paddy soil with cow manure compost or potassium sulfate. The soil ORP was automatically recorded every 15 min using a voltage meter. The ORP of paddy soil decreased temporally and stabilized at 50 days after the start of the experiment, suggesting that soil reduction occurred over those 50 days. When testing the potassium sulfate-paddy soil mixture, the soil ORP rapidly decreased during the first day after the experiment started. When testing cow manure compost-paddy soil mixture, a larger decrease in soil ORP was observed compared to that in the paddy soil alone. These findings suggest that soil reduction is promoted by adding potassium sulfate or cow manure compost. Among the soil samples tested, there was a range of soil ORPs and trends in the potential decreases. Based on the results of this study, it was found that continued potential measurement is effective in evaluating soil ORP, which represents temporal changes in SCE due to redox reactions after the addition of cow manure compost or potassium sulfate. In addition, the effects of bacteria activation are revealed during continued potential measurement of soil ORP.

Water quality assessment was carried out at Indawgyi Lake, the biggest lake of Myanmar. The main aim of this research is to evaluate the current status of lake water quality affected by the surroundings and man-made activities for three seasons (cold, hot and rainy) in 2019. Some physicochemical properties such as temperature, pH, ORP, EC, NTU, TDS and DO of surface and deep water samples from each point and totally four different points were analyzed in situ by water quality monitor U-53-G(Horiba). The concentrations of Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu, As and Hg were also examined by atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS) and total hardness, total alkalinity, salinity and chloride were measured by their respective methods. Nitrate and phosphate were detected by LaMotte, SMART 3 colorimeter. The condition of COD and BOD of the lake water were also investigated by standard incubating methods. In addition, counting of coliform was performed to detect pathogenic microorganisms of lake water. The resulting values were compared with the standard limits of World Health Organization (WHO) and it was concluded that the lake was urgently needed to sustain the long-life existence and its water qualities due to the findings of some physicochemical, biological, toxic and pathogenic affects produced by the surroundings.

The Sri Lankan Cassava Mosaic Disease (SLCMD) poses a major threat to the cassava industry in Cambodia, as it can decrease cassava yield by up to 80 percent. As SLCMD has no clear prescription, and currently, the only remedy is pulling out and incinerating the infected stems. The government of Cambodia, through the General Directorate of Agriculture (GDA), has moved swiftly to sensitize farmers on the causes, effects, and prevention measures of SLCMD. The GDA has used various media and methods to disseminate knowledge on SLCMD. However, effective information dissemination methods for changing farmers’ behaviors in terms of the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) still remain to be identified. In this study, we investigate the effectiveness of two knowledge dissemination methods, i.e., "single intervention"-distribution of printed educational materials (PEMs) and "multifaceted intervention"-distribution of PEMs combined with workshop training. The study was conducted in Battambang, north-west Cambodia over two periods, from June to October 2019, and from November 2019 to February 2020. In the first period of investigation, 468 farmers were randomly selected to participate in the study. We formulate the contents of the poster and workshop based on the "initial" KAP results where farmers had lower KAP. Then, all 468 farmers were divided randomly into three groups, namely "Control," "Treatment1," and "Treatment2." farmers in "Treatment1" were subjected to "single intervention" and those in "Treatment2" were subjected to "multifaceted intervention," while those in "Control" were subjected to no intervention. In the second period of investigation, the "second" KAP was analyzed to estimate the effectiveness of interventions applied in the first period. The results show that "multifaceted intervention" is the effective method to improve the KAP of farmers in Cambodia. Our experience of running such farmers’ workshops and the materials we developed could be useful to governments, non-governmental organizations, and commercial associations that are keen to mitigate the effects of SLCMD through appropriate interventions.

This study was conducted to identify high yielding improved rice genotypes which are adapted to the target location and accepted by local farmers. The experiment was conducted with a randomized complete block design with three replications, at TharGaYa village, Tharsi township, Myanmar. Sixteen improved rice lines and two check varieties were examined. Farmers voted for acceptance or rejection of individual varieties at the vegetative and pre- harvest stages and these votes were converted to a preference score. A significant difference among the genotypes tested occurred in yield per plant and its related characters. From the preference analysis, farmers and researchers showed highest preference for SM1/THY-DH-1-1 at the vegetative stage, followed by YAU-1214-183-3-1-2-1-1 and YAU-1201-90-2-4. At pre- harvest stage, farmers and researchers elected YAU-1201-90-2-4, followed by YAU-1214-183- 35-1-1-1 and YAU-1214-183-3-1-1-1-1. According to the sensory evaluation test, the best line was YAU-1201-90-2-4, with second and third being YAU-1201-26-1-1 and YAU-1201-26-1-3. There was very strong agreement in preferences for the best performing lines shown by male and female farmers. However, a weak correlation between researchers and farmers preferences was identified. This seemingly indicates that farmers and researchers have different criteria in selecting good performing lines. Farmers have prioritized their own way of variety selection for their localities, using features such as uniformity, lodging, panicle length, effective tillering and earliness. Therefore, it is important to include farmers’ preferences in any selection process to determine a suitable and acceptable variety.

Ovche Pole is an area in Macedonia located in the central part of the country. The region is the second largest grain producing area and agriculture is the main economic activity for most of the people there. From an agro-ecological perspective, larger part of the region is part of the sub-humid agricultural zone; however, there is an area that is identified as semiarid agricultural zone, too. In both agro-ecological zones, main problem and constraint for agricultural production are the dryness and low precipitation in the growing period. This problem is especially emphasized on the agricultural land without irrigation system. Therefore, this study analyzes rainwater harvesting approach as a mean for water conservation and improvement of agriculture productivity in the research area. The first objective of this study is to determine the runoff potential in the research area and the second is to identify suitable areas and measures for water harvesting. Remote sensing and geographic information system techniques were used to obtain, prepare and analyze input data. Because of simplicity and lack of hydrological data in the research area, SCS-Curve Number method was used for rainfall- runoff modelling. Hydrologic Soil Group (HSG) map was build using data obtained from the Macedonian Soil Information System (MASIS). Land use/land cover was prepared by combining supervised classification of Sentinel-2 satellite image and visual interpretation and editing to improve the classification. Slope map was generated from a 20-meter resolution DEM data obtained from the Agency for Real Estate Cadaster. Data of the annual average precipitation for the period between 1981 and 2010 was obtained from the National Hydrometeorological Service. Set of rainwater harvesting measures were selected as appropriate for the context of the research area. The site suitability for each rainwater harvesting intervention was determined by considering different varying parameters like runoff potential, slope, soil texture, land use, stream order of proximity to users. The results indicate that rainwater harvesting can be considered as a strategy for water conservation in the research area.

The role of marketing channels in agribusiness has been extensively studied in the last decade. While most studies have focused on the general impact of marketing channels on sales, the impacts of different choices of marketing channels on net returns has not been widely studied. Focusing on Afghan grape farmers, this paper studied the determinants of marketing channels, as well as the impact of marketing channel choices on net returns. The marketing channels considered in this paper were channels through farmer’s organizations, local traders and farmers who do on spot selling. Using survey data from 150 grape farmers in Kabul, Parwan, and Kapisa provinces in Afghanistan, the results showed that grape farming experience, selling price, province, distance to markets and internet use were some of the factors that affected the choice of marketing channels. In addition, marketing channels through local traders had a positive impact on returns as compared to channels through farmer’s organizations and on spot selling. The selectivity correction terms for all marketing channels were significant indicating the existence of selectivity bias from unobserved factors.

We investigated the effect of constant temperatures (24, 28, 32, and 36 °C) and room temperature on brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens, population dynamics; these data are useful for forecasting BPH outbreaks. Eggs laid by gravid females were incubated in test tubes at the treatment temperatures and observed for egg hatching. After hatching, first instar nymphs were collected using a camel-hair brush and incubated individually in new test tubes, each with a rice plant. The number of hatched and unhatched eggs were recorded. Nymphs were monitored daily for life table parameters until adult emergence; the longevity of adults were also recorded. From life table analysis, the greatest mortality occurred in the first nymphal instar, which resulted in type III survivorship curves. Moreover, at 36 °C, 100% mortality occurred at the egg stage. Brachypterous and Macropterous forms achieved high net reproductive rates at lower temperature regimes. The growth parameters of BPH decreased at 36 °C; temperatures above 32 °C were detrimental to the development of BPH. Results indicate that egg and nymphal stages were significantly affected by temperature. Egg hatch also decreased drastically with increased temperatures, especially at 36 °C.

Agriculture is a major anthropogenic source of Green House Gases (GHG) and contributes 24% of total GHG emitted (IPCC, 2014). Livestock sector forms a significant part of agriculture and is responsible for major GHG emission. According to FAO, 2016, livestock manure contributes 23% to total GHG emitted in agricultural sector. N₂O, CO₂ and CH₄ are important GHG emitted during management of livestock manure. Against the background of global warming, there is increased motivation in reducing GHG emission. Therefore, this study deals to see the effects in N₂O, CO₂ and CH4 emission by adding 5%, 10% and 15% of rice husk biochar during cow manure composting. In addition, degradation rate and C/N ratio of manure samples were analyzed for determining the final compost quality. Subsequently, a composting experiment was conducted using rice husk biochar and gases emitted were measured periodically with static gas chamber method. The experimental results indicated that biochar was effective in reducing N₂O and CO₂ emissions. The cumulative emission of N₂O was reduced by 40% in 5% treatment, 46% in 10% treatment and 60% in 15% treatment. Similarly, there was decrease of CO₂ by 69% in 5% treatment, 68% in 10% treatment and 48% in 15% treatment. Biochar’s well developed pore structure and adsorption capacity reduced the gas emission. Furthermore, addition of biochar enhanced degradation rate and better C/N ratio. Biochar addition provided necessary nutrients and habitat, facilitating growth of various microorganisms. The results of CH₄ emission did not show any significant difference between the treatments. The obtained results indicate that rice husk biochar addition is beneficial in reducing GHG emission and improving compost quality with faster degradation and better C/N ratio.

Aquilaria is a genus of about 20 species distributed mainly in the Indo-Malesian region. The genus Aquilaria belongs to the Thymelacaceae family of Indo-Malayan trees known for producing the world’s most expensive oils, which are naturally occurring throughout the Philippines. Aquilaria is well known for the production of agarwood which is a highly wanted forest product of substantial economic value. In the Philippines, there is limited published information on the physical condition, habitat structure, and ecological threats of Aquilaria, which is a crucial factor to determine the optimum requirements to develop Aquilaria production system. Hence, this study was conceptualized to assess the habitat structure of Aquilaria as well as its conservation and ecological threats in the wild. Assessment, surveys and interview were conducted to gather on-site atmospheric data as well as ecological threats of Aquilaria in the wild. Soil collection was also gathered to analyzed soil properties. The results revealed that there were two species of Aquilaria documented in the study site, namely: A. malaccensis and A. cumingiana. Moreover, the soil chemical properties are not significant between different topographic expositions, but it is acidic and generally have low nutrient status. Furthermore, the conservation and ecological threats documented in the study site are unsustainable harvesting, a massive collection of regenerant, and inflecting damage of Aquilaria by punching nails or drilling holes in the trunk of standing mature tree. Therefore, it is highly recommended that Aquilaria should be protected, particularly A. malaccensis, since it is rare and considered a new record of occurrence to Leyte Island as one of the major findings of the study. The establishment of Aquilaria based production system is necessary as an option to reduce the rampant illegal poaching of agarwood in the wild but should be established on private land and registered with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR).

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) in biogas resulting from anaerobic digestion process is unwanted trace compound, because it is toxic and can corrode biogas engine. This study aimed to compare the 2 desulfurization methods, air injection and iron oxide pellets addition, on H2S removal and quantity and quality of biogas. The experiment was carried out with two floating drum digesters (1 m³ each) constructed at Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, from January to August 2020. Three levels of air injection at 2%, 4%, and 6% of O₂ regarding the daily biogas production and iron oxide pellets application at 1 kg, 2 kg, and 4 kg per m3 of biogas were applied to remove H₂S in biogas from different raw materials of pig manure and food waste. The amount of daily biogas production was quantified by gas flow meter, also gas quality was measured using a GEM5000 gas analyzer. The experimental results indicated that food waste had higher daily biogas production comparing to pig manure in both desulfurization methods. Biogas from food waste increased from 544 L d^-1 without iron oxide pellets addition (0 kg) to 657 L d-1 with 4 kg iron oxide pellets addition; and to 566.5 L d-1 with 2% of injected O₂. To the contrary, desulfurization for pig manure with 2% of O₂ and 1 kg of iron oxide showed high daily biogas yield of 348 L d^-1 and 340 L d^-1, respectively. For raw materials of pig manure, in both desulfurization methods, had higher CH₄ content than food waste. Air injection was more effective in H₂S removal than iron oxide for both substrates, but higher level of H₂S reduction was observed with pig manure. Accordingly, it was concluded that desulfurization methods with air injection and iron oxide pellets addition were effective in biogas production as well as H₂S removal, but a clear trend appeared in the raw material of food waste.

Safety food and healthy food gain widespread popularity nowadays. In Thailand, mushroom consumption is increasing because of its high protein content and role as an effective stimulant of various immune system functions. As mushroom farmers’ respond to this demand, the need for sustainable waste management of mushroom cultivation has become important. Therefore, the study examined the growth and reproduction of earthworm and chemical properties of Eudrilus eugeniae vermicompost cultured under different ratio of spent mushroom substrate. The study found that application of bedding with spent mushroom substrate at the ratio 60:40 gave the highest growth rate of earthworms (2.5%) and had the highest increase in nutrient content (Total N, P, K, Mg, Ca) and had the highest decrease in the value of pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon and C/N ratio significantly. Based on these results, application of bedding with spent mushroom substrate at the ratio of 60:40 seemed to be the most suitable for vermicompost production. In general, recycling of spent mushroom substrate through vermicomposting may reduce the environmental stress and can produce organic fertilizers with better chemical and biological properties.

Soil is the mixture of mineral, organic material, living organisms, air and water that together support the growth of plant life. Fruit peels contain potassium, vitamins, minerals and some essential elements which enhance the growth of plant. Generally, fruit peels are thrown in garbage and it goes to solid waste dumping site. That causes odour problem due to degradation of peel content in dumping site. The present study deals with the utilization of different fruit peels such as orange peels and banana peels as fertilizer added to soil. The soil sample was collected from Shar- Taw-Lay village, Amarapura Township, Mandalay, Myanmar. Three soil samples were investigated by addition of organic waste fruit peel powder of orange and banana. Soil sample, S₁ (2000 g soil) as control, soil sample, S₂ (2000 g soil + 500 g orange peel powder) and soil sample, S₃ 2000 g soil + 500 g banana peel powder) and soil sample, S₃ (2000 g soil + 500 g banana peel powder) were fertilized soil. The physicochemical properties of three soil samples such as pH, electrical conductivity, organic matter and texture were determined. The elemental composition of three soil samples was measured by applying EDXRF. The content of N, P, K nutrients of three soil samples was determined by chemical instrumental method. Different fruit peel powders add soils to compare the plant growth were investigated. The chemical fertilizers can be replaced by the fruit peel powder to protect the soil from the infertility. This fruit peel materials have not cost bearing and thus aids in converting this waste into a usable resource.

The field experiment was conducted at Yezin Agricultural University Farm, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw, during July to November wet season, 2020, to investigate the effects of chicken manure and chemical fertilizer applications on growth, yield and yield components of rice. The experimental design was a randomized complete block (RCB) design with four replications. The four treatments were T1 (control, no application), T2 (80 N, 20 P, 32 K) kg ha^-1 (recommended rate), T3 (5 ton ha^-1 of chicken manure), and T4 (2.5 ton ha^-1 of chicken manure + recommended rate of fertilizer). Urea, triple superphosphate and muriate of potash were used as the N, P, and K sources and chicken manure was applied basally. The Sinthukha rice variety was tested. The plant growth parameters were recorded at biweekly intervals and the yield and yield components data were also collected at harvest time. The results show that the combined application of organic manure and recommended rate of fertilizer (T4 treatment) increased the number of panicles hill-1, number of spikelets panicle-1, filled grain percentage, and harvest index in comparison to other treatments. Moreover, the highest grain yield (6.87 ton ha^-1) was observed in T4 treatment and the minimum grain yield (6.09 ton ha^-1) was found in T1. Among the four treatments, T2 showed the second highest yield of rice in this study. The combined application of chicken manure and chemical fertilizer (T4) increased grain yield up to 12% over control. The application of chemical fertilizer only (T2) increased yields 7% more than the control. The application of chicken manure (T3) resulted in a 6% yield increase compared to the control. The application of chicken manure and chemical fertilizer (T4) increased yield per hectare by up to 6-12% more than the control. Therefore, the combined application of chicken manure and chemical fertilizer had the greatest effect on improving the yield of Sinthukha rice variety and maintaining soil sustainability.

Phenotypic traits qualitatively and quantitatively are helpful as a preliminary evaluation of maize genetic diversity and provided practical and critical information required characterizing genetic resources. To find out the varietal characterization and grouping with similarity, fifty maize genotypes including hybrids and inbreds were examined in this experiment. This experiment was carried out in a randomized complete block design with three replications during wet season from June to October, 2019, at Maize and other Cereal Crops Research Section, Department of Agricultural Research (DAR), Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar. The qualitative characters were recorded at different growing stages according to the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) Test Guide line (TG). The agglomerative cluster analysis was computed using Ward’s hierarchical algorithm based of qualitative characters. According to the results, diverse qualitative traits were observed among the tested genotypes and genotypes varied different qualitative traits with different frequencies. Thus, comparisons of qualitative traits were made to know the extent of variation among maize varieties under investigation to estimate the genetic diversity. The tested maize genotypes could be grouped five clusters based on qualitative traits. Although some maize genotypes collected in an area are included in different groups because of the different characteristics they pose. Since qualitative characters have less environmental influences, these traits could be used for Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability (DUS) test and Value for Cultivation and Use (VCU) testing of plant varieties. Thus, the application of morphological markers according to UPOV descriptor could contribute to more efficient selection of parental pairs in the early generations of testing.

Rice productivity is often limited by soil fertility depletion, water availability and access. Conservation Agriculture (CA) cropping systems have been designed and tested with the main objectives of restoring soil fertility, increasing productivity and profitability. This study assessed changes in soil health under rain-fed lowland rice under (i) conventional tillage (CT), (ii) CA (CA7: 7 years under CA) and (iii) green manure management for one year (CGM1) and for two years CGM2). Biofunctool^®, a multi-functional soil assessment approach based on a set of seven soil indicators, was used to evaluate changes in three main soil functions (C transformation, nutrient cycling, and soil structure). In addition, soil chemical analyses were conducted in the 0-5, 5-10, 10-20 and 20-40 cm soil layers to assess changes in nutrient contents. Our results emphasized positive impacts of CA on C transformation, soil structure and nutrient contents. Soil organic carbon and total N were significantly higher (p < 0.05) under CA7 in the 0-5 cm layer with up to +7.5 g C kg^-1 and +0.74 g N kg^-1, respectively. Higher values of labile C and soil respiration (p < 0.05) were observed under CA in the 0-5 and 5-10 cm layers. More stable soil aggregates and improved VESS values (p < 0.05) were also observed under CA. CA and CGM had 2 to 3 times more available phosphorus than CT in the 0-5 cm layer, and higher values were observed under CA from a depth of 0-20 cm. Higher Ca, Mg and K contents were recorded under CA and CGM in the 0 to 40-cm soil layer. A SOC stabilization trend was observed in soils under CA (0-5 and 5-10 cm layers) while a SOC mineralization trend was observed under CT and CGM. These results emphasize the positive impacts of CA on maintaining and/or enhancing soil health and in contributing to SOC accumulation. A diachronic analysis is now needed to assess the long-term on-farm impacts of CA on soil health and crop performances.

Commercial pig farms in Cambodia are increasing, representing 30% of the overall pig production in 2018. To run the farms, huge quantity of water is used on daily basis, and its large proportion ends up being wastewater that can cause air and water pollution, fly-related illnesses, and methane emissions. In response, anaerobic digestion (AD) is applied to convert waste into energy. Covered lagoons are an anaerobic biodigester that has long been used for commercial biogas plants in Cambodia due to acceptable investment cost and favorable climatic conditions for biogas production. However, lack of local technical data and technical assessment is a barrier to wider implementation of biogas systems in the country. Therefore, the study was conducted to explore the characteristics of commercial pig farms and wastewater use; to analyze the quality of biogas compositions from different covered lagoons; and to estimate biogas production, electricity generation, and CO₂ reduction equivalent from the collected data. The study was started from January to October 2020, selecting 9 farms with evaporative cooling systems for in-depth interviews, along with direct observations, biogas analysis, and power analysis. The findings indicate that all the studied farms were fattening farms operated under purchase contract with private companies. Pig production varied from 2,800 to 7,200 head per cycle, with two cycles per year. Moreover, daily wastewater was 0.033 m3 d-1 head-1, with dry matter (DM) accounting for 0.9%. Annual biogas production and electricity generation were 32.7 m³ y^-1 head^-1 and 42.5 kWh y^-1 head^-1, respectively. Biogas quality was 59.5% CH₄, 31.5% CO₂, 1.3% O₂, and 2,256 ppm H₂S. With biogas systems, individual farms could reduce CO₂ emission by 0.676 tCO₂eq y^-1 head^-1, which is economically and environmentally beneficial. However, a business model should be taken into account for successful implementation.

Tea Leaf is one of the traditional food in Myanmar. It is eaten as well as drunk with two main forms which are wet tea leaf (Myanmar name, Lahpet so) and dried tea leaf (Myanmar name, Lahpet chauk). Tea leaves can be picked starting from April until October. At Namhsan area, Northern Shan State in Myanmar, tea leaves are generally divided into six kinds depending on the plucked season. There are "Shwephi-Oo", "Shwephi-Hnaung", "Khakan-Oo", "Khakan-Hnaung", "Kha-Naing", and "Kha-Hawt" or "Hnin Tet". In this study, some nutritional value and antioxidant activities of six kinds of dried tea leaves in Namhsan region were evaluated by the aiming of which kind of dried tea leaves have the best quality for consumers. The analyses included examination of the dried tea leaves were their nutritional value (carbohydrate, protein, and amino acids), assessment of selected minerals, caffeine, catechin mixture, dietary fiber and total ash. Nutritional contents of tea leaves were examined by preliminary phytochemical screening method and the selected mineral contents (Ca, Zn, Fe, Mn) were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). Total ash contents were determined by ignition method. Antioxidant activities of dried tea leaves were evaluated by the DPPH free radical scavenging assay. Caffeine and catechin mixture (flavonoid) were extracted by using chemical reagents such as dichloromethane and chloroform. From the observed results, dried tea leaves in Namhsan region were rich in mineral contents (2.33-5.48 mg/kg of Ca, 1.40- 1.94 mg/kg of Zn, 1.06-1.77 mg/kg of Fe and 8.06-21.06 mg/kg of Mn), 0.525-3.413% protein, 8-11.5% crude fiber, 4.20-7.39% total ash, 0.075-0.200% caffeine, 0.4-2.0% catechin mixture and high antioxidant activities (2.3-5.9 ìg/L, IC₅₀ value of DPPH scavenging assay) were found. Based on the studied nutritional values and antioxidant activity results, Shwephi-Oo dried tea leave was confirmed that the best quality.