Salt affected soil is a severe environmental problem in northeast of Thailand. About 16.82 percent of the total land area in the region is accounted for the salt affected area. In the study area of Phra Yun district, Khon Khaen province, there were many studies since 1990 and 18 governmental projects of Thailand have been conducted for rehabilitating salt affected soil since 1999. However, attention has been paid to the current condition of salt accumulation in Phra Yun district, after many studies and projects have been implemented. So in this study, soil survey was conducted in four areas, Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) reforested area and adjacent bare area, Acacia (Acacia ampliceps) reforested area and adjacent bare area. Disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were collected for analyzing physical and chemical properties of soils. The differences in chemical properties of soils were analyzed by t-test statistical method. The results showed that EC_1:5 values of soils in reforested and adjacent bare areas were significantly different at 99%. The sodium and calcium concentration of soils at the same depth in reforested and adjacent bare areas also showed significant different at 95% and 99%. Moreover, there was a tendency that EC_1:5 values, sodium and calcium concentration decreased with soil depth due to accumulation of salts at the surface layers. Although many studies and projects have been implemented in Phra Yun district, salt accumulation has been still severe, especially in bare areas. In addition, it was clearly observed that reforested areas of Eucalyptus and Acacia tended to be lower in electrical conductivity, sodium and calcium concentration than that of adjacent bare areas. Thus, it was concluded that reforestation is an effective approach to rehabilitate salt affected soil.

The purpose of this research was to improve the productivity and quality of rice. This research was to compare various types of fertilizers that are suitable for growing rice. Six experimental models were arranged in RCBD with 3 replications consisting of 18 field plots comprising a total of 5 Rai. Each model was designated as: T0 (no fertilizer: Control group), T1 (pellet compost), T2 (Compost mixed bio-liquid fertilizer), T3 (compost mixed mineral formula called formula-1), T4 (compost mixed higher mineral formula called formula-2), and T5 (compost mixed the highest mineral formula called formula-3). Each type of fertilizer was used at a rate of 50 kilograms per Rai. The rice seed used in the testing was Phitsanulok #2. The experiment was located at Moo 13, Ban Huaidang, Prompiram city, Phitsanulok Province, Thailand during April 2012 to September 2012. The soil data and fertilizers used in an experiment were collected for reference and analysis. Plant Environmental data, growth data, Yields, yield components and production costs were also collected. The data were statistically analyzed using ANOVA and DMRT at a 95% level of confidence. The analysis on the macro- nutrients from the fertilizer was designated: T5, T4, T3, T2 and T1, respectively. The plant growth data the maximum outputs are ranked from T3, T5, T4, T2, T1 and T0 models, respectively. According to the study results on yield and yield components the maximum outputs are ranked from T3, T5, T4, T2, T1 and T0 models (1,119.4, 990.3, 949.3, 872.2, 813.2 and 781.0 kilograms per Rai, respectively). In case of the T3 model compared with T0 (no fertilizer), it was found that the productivity increased 43.3% and the percentage of withered rice decreased 60%. In the study of total production costs, it was found that the maximum production costs per Rai was T5, T4, T3, T2, T1 and T0 models with 6,850, 6,800, 6,730, 6,540, 6,380 and 5,880 Baht per Rai, respectively. When compared with the yields, the least-costs rice production per 1 kilogram were ranked from T3,T5, T4, T2, T0 and T1 models with 6.01, 6.19, 7.16, 7.49, 7.52 and 7.84 Baht per kilogram, respectively. When selling rice at 11,500 Baht per ton, it was found that the highest profits of the models were as follows: T3, T5, T4, T2, T0 and T1 with 6,143.1, 4,538.4, 4,116.9, 4,390.3, 3,101.5 and 2,971.8 Baht per Rai, respectively.

The purpose of this research was to improve the productivity and quality of corn. The test plant was located at Moo 2 Ban Nongping, Tha-Ngarm sub-district, Watbot District, Phitsanulok province, Thailand; and the test was undertaken throughout June 2011 to September 2011. Six experimental models were arranged in RCBD with three replications consisting of eighteen field plots. Each model was designated as T0 (no fertilizer: Control group), T1 (pellet organic fertilizer from farm manure), T2 (granular organic bio-fertilizer), T3 (chemical and granular organic fertilizer), T4 (chemical fertilizer from the soil analysis programs) and T5 (chemical and granular organic fertilizer with hormones mixed formula). Each type of fertilizer was used at a rate of fifty (50) kilograms per Rai. The corn seed used in the testing was type NK#48. Plant environmental data, vegetative growth data were collected every ten days. Yields, yield components and production costs were also collected. The data were statistically analyzed using ANOVA and DMRT at a 95% level of confidence. The analysis on the chemical property of the fertilizers indicated the maximum macro-nutrients ranking from Nitrogen, Potassium, and Phosphorus, respectively. The model having the highest macro-nutrients was T4 (chemical fertilizer from soil analysis programs). The model containing the highest secondary nutrients was T5 (chemical and granular organic fertilizer with hormones mixed formula). The vegetative growth data which was the measure of the stem heights and size, leaf length and leaf width were designated T4, T5, T3, T2, T1 and T0, respectively. It was clear that this result was a function of the Nitrogen level contained in the fertilizers. According to the study results on yield components in terms of the length and a diameter of corn ear, total weight per corn ear, weight of kernels per ear and weight of 100 kernels, the maximum outputs were ranked from T4, T5, T3, T2, T1 and T0 models. The highest number of withered kernels and the heaviest corn husk were T0, T1, and T2, respectively. The models having greatest weight productivity per Rai were T4, T5, T3, T2, T1 and T0 models (1,319 kg, 1,305 kg, 970 kg, 857 kg, 775 kg, and 428 kg respectively). The results indicated that there was no statistically significant difference between T5 and T4 models in relation to the weight productivity per Rai. In the study of total production costs, it was found that the minimum production costs per Rai were T0, T5, T2, T1, T3 and T4 models (8,288, 8,538, 9,080, 9,238, 9,438, 10,108 Baht per Rai, respectively). When compared with the yields, the least cost of corn production per one kilogram were T5 and T4 models with no statistically significant difference between the two. Therefore, the model that should be encouraged and promoted to the farmers for sustainable production was T5 model; this type of fertilizer contained a balance of nutrients, soil amendments and effective microorganisms. In addition, it provided high productivity with the highest financial return.

El Jicaral is an indigenous community of around one thousand inhabitants located in the Municipality of Coicoyán de las Flores, Mixteca Region, Mexico. This region is characterized for being one of the poorest regions in Mexico, with high levels of land degradation, deforestation and water shortages. Even though several studies have been undertaken to estimate the region’s area affected by soil degradation, the findings derived from these studies cannot describe accurately the conditions in the community especially for scale differences, and hence appropriate sustainable farming practices are difficult to be proposed. For this reason, the objective of this study is to assess the present land degradation condition in the study area, using a satellite map obtained from Google Earth and through the overlaying of a mesh, for the identification and classification of several variables, namely vegetation density, slope, steepness and land use, to propose suitable farming practices for mitigating land degradation. The results showed that currently there is a severe degree of soil degradation in the community, reflected in the majority of cells of the mesh with very low and low values of vegetation density, and that most of them were also in slopes up to 16%. Also, it was observed that most of the studied area land use was dedicated for agricultural purposes, even in hillside terrains. So, it is necessary to implement farming systems taking into account this topographic factor, as well as socioeconomic and environmental ones.

The social and economic impact of modernisation processes of agriculture is diverse in rural sub-Sahara Africa.With the introduction of modern agricultural technology, such as high yield varieties, irrigation infrastructure and water distribution, paddy yield increased in Lower Moshi Irrigation Scheme (LMIS) in the Kilimanjaro region in Tanzania. The major aim for developing LMIS was to reduce rural poverty through improving food security and income from paddy production. It was partially achieved, however, generated controversial effects of unequal land and water distribution. In Tanzania, 84% of the female labour force is engaged in agriculture, consisting of about 50% of the total agricultural labour force. However, female farmers have limited access to and control over land and water due to pre-existing social and customary practices, as well as limited participation in the decision-making processes. Land ownership is a condition for obtaining a membership in the water association. And water is becoming scarce due to climate changes, encroachment on the forests and conflicts between upper-stream and down-stream. The main objective of this paper is to analyse relationships between women’s land ownership and water distribution through a case study of modern irrigation project. The research methods used are literature review, semi-structured interviews with male and female farmers, and statistical data analysis of landholdings. Main results of the study are: 1) the number and share of female land ownership increased in the last 25 years, however, the social and gender partiality about land inheritance and ownership are still persistent which prohibit female farmers from equal access to irrigation water, 2) changing regulations and practices of water users associations to be more gender-responsive lead into more equitable and impartial water distribution.

Pathogenic bacteria known as E. coli may survive in cow manure and may efflux from upland fields where cow manure was applied. So, treating of E.coli through fermentation process has been focused. It has been considered that air drying method was effective method for decreasing E.coli. However, this treatment may possibly eliminate not only pathogenic bacteria but also useful bacteria for decomposition. This study aimed to investigate the changes in number of E.coli, coliform bacteria and general bacteria during the fermentation of cow manure with adding lime nitrogen (nitrolime). Samples used were fresh cow dung, 2 weeks and 12 weeks fermented manure. Lime nitrogen was added to all three types of dung samples then were kept in incubator within 14 days. Sampling, stirring and supplying of physiological saline were conducted. Based on the experimental results, there was a significant decrease in E.coli and coliform bacteria in cow manure after adding of lime nitrogen; however there was no decrease in general bacteria. It was observed that controlling to pH 9.0 in cow manure samples was appropriate for decreasing E.coli and coli form bacteria during cow manure fermentation with minimum damage to general bacteria. Therefore, it was concluded that treating of cow manure by adding lime nitrogen, especially controlling to around pH 9.0, is an effective strategy for sterilizing pathogenic bacteria such as E.coli and other coliform bacteria with minimum damage to general bacteria.

In the Philippines, rice bug is a serious menace at reproductive stage of rice causing qualitative as well as quantitative losses resulting in yield reduction by 14% (PGCPP-BPI-MAF, 1986). Thus, chemical pesticides become an instant management strategy in rice culture for many decades until even after users realized its adverse effects on environment and human health. Though effective, various reports are made on pesticide residues in food, soil, water, air and overall environment causing health problems (Magallona, 1985). These problems are more than lessons from the technology. Hence, the need to seek for an effective technology that also reduces input costs while assuring supply of safe and nutritious food for man and all useful organisms, tapping common yet underutilized pest-repellent plant species. The Hindu (2002) reported that companion planting with repellent and trap crops is among the safe but sure ways to manage the insect pests of crops. Repellents are plants with strong natural aroma that can ward-off insect pests away. This experimental research determined the usefulness of resource-based alternative approach on rice bug management using four repellent plant species. A two- factorial randomized complete block design was employed with sites and repellent species as factors. The indigenous repellents tested in three replicates per site were: Bamboo (Bambusa levis L.), Erect Shell (ES) Ginger Plant (Catimbium haenkei L.), Malubago (Hibiscus tiliaceus L.) and Sand Ginger (Kaempferia galanga L.) with one control treatment as check. The statistical analysis revealed that the repellents tested were all effective in reducing rice bug population and infestation compared to the control, however, Bamboo and Sand Ginger are the most significantly effective. Findings imply that resource-based approach using repellents is efficient in reducing rice bug population and infestation, thus, it is valuable in preventing its yield loss in producing safe food and in making the rice agro-ecosystem safe for the useful organisms.

In this paper we consider whether the processes of farm-level change and adoption of new technologies in Cambodia can be related to the adoptability characteristics of a technology. The literature posits that technologies can be assessed in terms of relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability and observability. Other socio-economic factors may also be important in the adoption process. We test these propositions among commercial upland farmers in north-west Cambodia for rhizobium inoculation of legume seeds to increase crop yields. In promoting this technology the objective is to increase farm income and help to reduce poverty and improve food security. We surveyed farmers who have been involved in a project testing and demonstrating rhizobium inoculation (along with other technologies) and statistically analyzed the results. We found that, with respect to their rhizobium-adoption intentions, relative advantage (incentive) is the predominant characteristic, with observability also being important. Other socio-economic characteristics in their adoption, intentions included whether they grew legumes, the source of first contact, the period since the technology was introduced, and the size of farm. That the innovation demonstrated high relative advantage was confirmed by separate economic analysis of the likely return on investment for rhizobium in these upland farming systems. Using an approach of assessing adoptability characteristics prior to release provides a basis for developing and screening technologies for successful adoption, rather than trying to adapt ill-suited (in terms of these characteristics) technologies after the event. Such an approach is likely to be more efficient for project sponsors to achieve desirable change.

Tesso Nilo National Park has a forest area approximately 153 000 hectares located in the 4^th district in Riau Province, Indonesia. The park is one of eight blocks of natural forests at Pelalawan Regency in Riau Province. With its rich resources, it provides benefits for the economic development of the people and community. While the mobility of people from the other side, interests of forestry potential is so high, resulting in the emergence of bad things to the preservation of forests and the environment of the forest resource itself. In line with rapid population growth and increasing demand for wood, plantations and agricultural land expansion, and excessive timber industry practices coupled with the level of exploitation of forest resources on a large scale, through large scale cultivation without any effort adequate conservation and rehabilitation, as well as policy issues that are less supportive of forest conservation and forest law enforcement failures increased the level of deforestation or forest loss. The study used survey research involving observation. Population sampling was done by purposive sampling or selection of a deliberate consideration of respondents where actors consisting of three different stakeholder groups on the basis of formal and informal institutions. The group was the Government, Society, and other groups that were not incorporated in the two previous groups. The factors that specifically affected the implementation of Forest law are as follows: unfinished boundaries, lack of quality and quantity of personnel, existence of tenure and encroachment, inconsistent land use designation, existence of settlements in the region, uncontrolled logging or timber theft, fire hazard, overlapping with plantation, weak oversight of the access road around region, and lack of coordination among relevant agencies. Governments need to improve the coordination system to each relevant agency to carry out protection and conservation of the Tesso Nillo forest areas as well as enforcing in the law against any encroachment and violations under the legislation.

In this study, the characteristics of nitrogen in river water at the normal water level were examined for a period after the enforcement of animal waste regulation. The differences in agricultural land use in the two study sites in Eastern Hokkaido were taken into consideration. In 35 watersheds in the two areas, the total nitrogen (T-N), nitrate nitrogen (NO₃-N), nitrite nitrogen (NO₂-N) and ammonium nitrogen (NH₄-N) concentrations, and the river discharges were investigated. A total of 7 investigations were carried out during the period from late May to late November 2005. In the Tokachi area (24 watersheds), the main land uses are upland and dairy farming. In the Nemuro area (11 watersheds), the main land use is large-scale dairy farming. Irrespective of the land use in the watershed, when the proportion of the agricultural land was about 20% or lower, the value obtained by adding the standard deviation to the annual mean T-N concentration of river water in many investigated watersheds was 1.0 mg/L or lower. When watersheds whose proportion in the agricultural land was 65% or higher were examined, there were some whose values obtained by adding the standard deviation to the annual mean T-N concentration were close to 10 mg/L. Decreasing trends were not identified in the nitrogen concentration in river water investigated in the first year after enforcement of animal waste regulation. From the viewpoint of water quality conservation, it is effective to appropriately adjust the use of chemical fertilizers in the cropland in the watersheds and to encourage dairy farmers to practice appropriate management of livestock manure.

Declining land productivity is a major problem faced by small holder farmers in the Mekong Delta today. Low soil quality is one of the greatest long-term challenges for farmers in rice monocultures on alluvial soil. In order to better understand how farm characteristics and crop rotations affect crop yield and income, a socio-economic evaluation among smallholder farmers were conducted in Cai Lay District, Tien Giang province. During farm household surveys, information on household characteristics, farm cropping activities, farm production practices and performance, and household income was collected. Four types of farming practices were observed, one based on traditional rice monoculture with three rice crops per year (RRR), one based on a crop rotation with two rice and one upland crop (RUR), one based on a crop rotation with one rice and two upland crops (RUU), and a fourth based on upland crop monocultures (UUU). From the results of interviews with the farmers, it was found that rotations with RUR or RUU gave higher rice yields than RRR. The rice yield in the last five years increased when rotations with upland crops were implemented (RUR and RUU), which was strongly in contrast with the rice yield decrease over the last five years for rice monoculture systems (RRR). The benefit-to-cost ratio was the highest for RUR. Interestingly, in RUR and RUU, farmers apply less fertilizer and pesticide for rice production compared to RRR. The survey revealed that many farmers had a tendency to apply too much nitrogen as a way to compensate for the reduced rice growth due to land degradation in RRR. Regarding farm size in the study area, the average size is about 0.62 ha. The size of small farms is 0.36 ha and such small farms are found in UUU systems. The largest farms (0.91 ha) were found in RRR systems. Farms of 0.68 ha and 0.43 ha are found in RUR and RUU systems, respectively. The average profit of RUR and RUU was 2,490 USD/ha/year and 2,686 USD/ha/year, respectively. Those were higher than the profit of RRR farming (1,094 USD/ha/year), but lower than the profit from UUU systems (3,058 USD/ha/year).

The paper evaluates the impact of water availability, fertilizer consumption and credit disbursement on sugarcane productivity in Pakistan using time series data over the period 1981-2011. The data has been taken from Economic Survey of Pakistan, Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan and National Fertilizer Development Corporation (NFDC). The study estimates log-log model using ordinary least square method. For checking the stationarity of the time series data, Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) test is used. The empirical findings reveal that the yield elasticities of water availability, fertilizer consumption and credit disbursement are 0.16, 0.14 and 0.04 respectively. It is recommended that water availability should be ensured by the government at the grass root level for higher sugarcane productivity. The farmers should be given support in consumption of fertilizer. Micro Agriculture credit should be given for sugarcane farmers for purchasing the inputs, technology and high yielding varieties.

This study aimed to assess the impacts of soil salinity on the crop production system and to describe the food security and social and economic conditions in the salt- affected areas of Northeast Thailand. Ban Nong Na Woaw, Ban Phon Sim, and Ban Som Sanuk, all in the Northeast region of Thailand, were purposely selected because they had different salinity levels and different ecosystems. Random sampling method was used to select 90 households from the three villages and both quantitative and qualitative data were collected from January to June 2012 using a questionnaire, semi-structured interviews, and direct observation. Data were analyzed by means of descriptive methods. In all studied villages, the production system of rice among the farmers was not much different. Farmers used organic fertilizers and farmyard manure to alleviate salinity in their rice field. There were different types of agricultural and non-agricultural activities in the three studied villages practiced by the farmers in order to improve food security of their families. The average of rice yields was very low, about 1.5 ton/ha. The main income source was agricultural work among rural households. Domestic animals raised by most farm households in all villages were cattle, buffalo, pigs, chicken and crickets for home consumption and sale. In addition to salinity effects, periodic droughts, the heavy reliance on monsoons, lack of financial capital and low inputs uses were the other major constraints for the farmers in all villages. This finding suggests that farmers need to be advised to use farmyard manure and green manure in order to reduce salinity. But equally important is correct application and the timely use of urea fertilizer, better weeding, timely harvesting and proper threshing and winnowing. Since rice is the main source of livelihood for the farmers, extension agencies should provide farmers with financial and technical assistance such as salt tolerant rice varieties, knowledge and improved technologies.

Large scale economic development (LSED) has undergone rapid policy and sectoral reform in Cambodia. LSED is expected to generate revenues to support economic growth and development at both macro and micro levels. Yet, it is questionable about benefits and risks of such natural resource-consumptive and extractive development for the host areas, especially indigenous people (IP). IP communities in Northeastern (NE) Cambodia are vulnerable to such development. This region has been put under agricultural economic land concession, forest concession, and mining concession. The conversion of forestlands and farmlands into commercial cash-crop and agro-industry plantations as well as logging and mining zones has led IP communities to have limited access to land and natural resources. This caused to reduced livelihood capabilities (resources, knowledge and skills, activities, and protective security) and distressed cultural diversity and integrity and socio-demographic fabric of IP. By using sustainable livelihood approach/framework (SLA/F), this paper aims to investigate IP livelihood problems and identify LSED opportunities and strategies in Northeastern Cambodia and their impacts on IP livelihoods.

The study proposes an indicator-based analysis on the vulnerability of agricultural production to flood issues in a river catchment area. The study site is the Sangkae River catchment area located in the Northwestern region of Cambodia and the unit of observation is the commune. Flood hazards are not restricted to the downstream lowland Tonle Sap plain; the study also considers river overflow and run-off flood events occurring upstream in Sangkae River catchment. We address the concept of vulnerability in three dimensions (exposure, sensitivity and adaptation capacity) and operationalize it in a multi-level analytical framework.We first identify indicators relevant with each of the three dimensions of vulnerability. We then combine the standardized and weighted indicators into composite exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity indexes, which we analyze statistically and spatially with a geographic information system. We further integrate the indicators in a hierarchical cluster analysis to establish a typology of commune vulnerability across the catchment. The results of the study showed the link between the vulnerability of agriculture to flood and the different farming systems of rural communities.

Timor deer were used in an experiment to study the comparative behavior of α- male, β-males and subordinate male raised in captivity. Twelve males (4.25 years old) and 24 females (3 to 4 years old) were randomly assigned into three separate cages following the ratio of 4 males: 8 females. Kruskal-Wallis H test of non-parametric analyses were done for aggressive, libido and mating behaviors. The α-male was the dominant male in terms of aggressive, libido and mating behaviors. Subordinate male showed the highest frequency of wallowing to reduce stress, and running around for expressing libido. Successful mating was mostly exhibited by α-male, Subordinate2 (S2)-male did not show actual mating. The establishment of dominance hierarchy resulted to the manifestation of differences reproductive behaviors.

The tsunami that occurred after the Tohoku Earthquake of March 11, 2011, devastated the infrastructure in Tohoku, including roads and water channels. This study reports the results of a tsunami simulation experiment using an open channel for evaluation of tide embankments and protection forest in controlling the force of tsunami waves and flow of sand carried by tsunami. Coastal areas in Minami Soma City, Fukushima Prefecture, that were devastated by the Tohoku Earthquake were assumed as the experimental location. A 0.3 m-wide, 12 m-long open channel was used for the tsunami experiment. To simulate a tsunami, a removable barrier was set near the upstream end of the channel to retain water. The barrier was lifted to generate a bore. The scale for the model was 1/100. A model protection forest and a tide embankment made of acrylic were placed at the longitudinal midpoint of the channel. To examine the sand control effect of the tide embankment and protection forest at the time of tsunami, Toyoura silica sand was laid in the channel bottom upstream of the tide embankment and protection forest. The sand left behind after the tsunami simulation was measured for dry weight. The speed of the wave beyond the protection forest tended to decrease with increases in forest width. The amount of sand carried by the tsunami was found to decrease with increases in forest width. The results, however, are from a simplified model channel experiment. It is necessary to perform experiments that more closely reproduce the original sites in terms of topography and vegetation.

In Cambodia, 71% of labor force engage in agricultural sector and contribute for creating 36% of Gross Domestic Products on 2010. Besides, Cambodia suits for agriculture because Mekong River and Tonle Sap Lake provide fertile soil. In the research site, Samroung commune in Kampong Cham province, agriculture is the source of income for farmers. Eleven villages are located in this commune and 1,792 families present. Main crop in the commune is rice. Also, some farmers grow vegetables such as cucumber or morning glory in this area. In this country, conventional farming system based on agro- chemicals application becomes a major farming style in recent years. But the ways how to apply the purchased agricultural inputs of farmers, especially chemical pesticides, are not appropriate from a point of view of rural sustainability. It means popular farming systems depending on agro-chemicals are not only deteriorating natural environment and ecosystem but also affecting health of humans. For preventing these impacts, attention has been paid to sustainable farming system. But it also has difficulties for applying. For example, especially in the beginning, it may difficult for farmers to apply its techniques effectively because techniques of sustainable farming system are new techniques. In addition, these techniques needs more care, load and time period for getting the maximum effects compared to applying agro-chemicals. So farmers may be difficult to keep their motivation for adapting sustainable farming system. So, this study dealt with the awareness of conversion from conventional farming system to sustainable farming system, based on the questionnaire and interview survey conducted in Samroung commune of Kampong Cham province, Cambodia. This study concluded that extension approaches which are applied in Samroung commune are effective in order to change farmer’s awareness of convert farming system. Addition to this, possibility of reducing the amount of agro-chemicals used was also observed.

Local farmers tend to burn crop residues to simplify soil preparation for the following season cultivation. Along with the environmental conservation policies that were implemented by the government, local farmers began to consider the adverse effects of crop residue burning. In this regard, efficient utilization of organic resources through composting of crop residues has been practiced. The objectives of this study were to find out the effects of adding Bacillus sp. on composting of crop residues and to observe the effects of Bacillus sp. added crop residues on plant growth. The number of Bacillus sp. colonies existing in crop residue and soil were determined by agar culture medium. Composting was carried out based on the number of Bacillus Bacterial colonies (cfu): 1.5×10¹⁴, 1.5×10¹⁶ or 1.5×10¹⁸ cfu. Carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio and number of Bacillus Bacteria were measured once a week. To observe the effects of Bacillus sp. added compost on plant growth, pots were prepared as control pots; crop residue pots; Bacillus sp. added crop residue pots; and burned crop residue pots. Komatsuna (Brassica rapa) were cultivated. Based on the experimental results, it was found that compost with higher number of Bacillus sp. have significant decrease of C/N ratio with time. Also, it was found that the mass of the crops in the pots added with Bacillus sp. (average 1.4 g) was larger than that control pots (0.5 g). Therefore, adding of Bacillus sp. can promote decomposition of crop residues and enhance the quality of compost.

Tourism, which has grown significantly in the Siem Reap-Angkor region, has had significant impacts on the livelihoods of local residents. This paper presents an overview of the Tourism Value Chain (TVC) in the region and examines the involvement of local residents in local TVC components. A qualitative approach, incorporating observations and semi-structured interviews with 25 local residents, was applied in this study. Secondary data were collected from the Siem Reap provincial tourism department and the Cambodian Ministry of Tourism. The results revealed that, although tourism has provided jobs and business opportunities to locals, their earnings have been consistently low. It is difficult for the poor to access tourism jobs and start tourism related businesses because of lack of financial resources, lack of small business knowledge, inability to use foreign languages and low education levels. Lack of knowledge to diversify products, of information about market needs and of capital to purchase production tools, machinery and raw materials are the main constraints facing local artisans to improve their livelihoods. Poor soil fertility, small agricultural landholdings, low agricultural technological know-how, poor extension services, inability to compete with imported products and limited connections between the tourism sector and local peasants also prevent the poor farmers from gaining economic benefits from tourism.

This study was aimed to examine biochemical substances and their relationships in plants growing on salt affected area. The study took place in a very high salinity in Bamnetnarong District, Chaiyaphum Province between the rainy season (August 2011) and the dry season (April 2012). Two groups of plants were analyzed; halophytes and salt tolerant species. The halophytes consisted of Azima sarmentosa, Maytenus mekongensis, and Pluchea indica whereas the salt tolerance plant is Combretum quadrangulare. The results of the biochemical substances analyzes and showed that in the dry season all the plants produced more the contents of proline, hydrogen peroxide, peroxidase activity and malondiadehyde, and the percentage of electrolyte leakage than in the rainy season. Additionally, in both two seasons, the plants in the halophyte group produced substances less than in the salt tolerance plant. The best self-adjustment mechanism was discovered in A. sarmentosa, which produced a small and stable quantity of substances even though the electrical conductivity rose up.

The objective of this research was to investigate the effects of chitosan and lotus extracts to stimulate growth of orchid plantlets in greenhouse conditions. Chitosan was extracted from prawn shells (Penaeus monodon) with 90% deacetylation (DD) and 85- 89% purity. The lotus extracts from the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera ‘Roseum Plenum’ were used as the sources of antimicrobial agents. The Dendrobium orchid ‘Sureepeach’ plantlets were treated with 10,30,50 and 100 mg L^-1 chitosan and 1,3 and 5 g L^-1 lotus extracts at 7 day intervals. The combination of 100 mg L^-1chitosan and 5 g L^-1 lotus extracts gave the maximum number of leaves and shoots of the plantlets after 10 weeks of transplanting.

Under the current 15-year Renewable Energy Development Plan (REDP) of 2008-2022, Thailand’s Ministry of Energy promotes the production and use of ethanol to substitute fossil oil. Two major crops used to produce ethanol in Thailand are sugarcane and cassava. This research assesses the water footprint (WF) of sugarcane and cassava under the rain-fed and irrigated agriculture in the eastern provinces of the Kingdom. The data on crop evapotranspiration, use of fertilizer, and yield are required for the estimation of the water footprint in crop production, the approach of which is based on The Water Footprint Assessment Manual of Hoekstra et al. The results of this study show that the average WF’s of sugarcane in rain-fed and irrigated cultivation are respectively 171 m³/ton (89% green, 11% grey) and 162 m³/ton (83% green, 7% blue, 10% grey). For cassava, the average WF’s in rain-fed and irrigated agriculture are 387 m³/ton (85% green, 15% grey ) and 413 m³/ton (81% green, 5% blue, 14% grey), respectively. Rainfall is still a key factor in the cultivation of sugarcane and cassava taking into consideration the proportion of water use. The sugarcane yield in the rain-fed fields is lower than that in the irrigated fields, while the yield of cassava in both environments is similar. The findings not merely would be of use to stakeholders and policymakers for better water management but also could be used as basis data of sub-national water footprint for crop production.

Cookies are a kind of food product made from flour and other ingredients such as butter, egg, sugar, milk, and baking soda. This research was conducted to find the optimum temperature and the optimum proportion of cassava flour required in cookie production. The experiment was divided into nine treatments with three replications, different temperatures included 160 °C, 170 °C ; 180 °C and proportions of cassava flour trialed were 50 %, 75 %; 100 %. The processing and sensory testing were conducted in the food processing laboratory of the Faculty of Agro-Industry, Royal University of Agriculture (RUA) while the analysis of chemicals was done in the Industrial Laboratory Centre of Cambodia (ILCC). The results show that using 50%, 70% and 100% 5 % and 100 % of cassava flour at the temperature of 160 °C, 170 °C and 180 °C affected the chemical properties of cookie products such as ash, moisture, protein, fat, sugar, carbohydrate, and energy. Also, they affected the color, texture, odor, as well as flavor and crispness, factors which all related to consumers identifying cookies as their favorites. Among nine treatments, the second treatment which used 50% of cassava flour at the temperature of 170 °C was the best treatment; whereas, the ninth treatment which used 100% of cassava flour at the temperature of 180 °C had the lowest quality. Therefore, results show that 50 % of cassava flour baked at the temperature of 170 °C for 8 minutes is the optimum configuration to use in cookie production.

Cucumbers, harvested from Saang district, Kandal province, Cambodia were wrapped with low density polyethylene (LDPE) or high density polyethylene (HDPE) or in the open before they were stored in two types of storage conditions (evaporative cooling system (ECS)(80 USD), designed in the faculty of Agro-Industry, Royal University of Agriculture and in ice foam box (2.375 USD) filled with an amount of ice for cooling the cucumbers or in ambient condition (1.5 USD) in order to seek for appropriate and low cost methods to maintain the quality and enhance shelf-life of cucumbers. The shelf-life of cucumbers were determined based on weight losses, fruit shriveling, changes in color, titratable acidity (TA) and total soluble solids (TSS). Of the storage treatments, keeping fruit in both type of polyethylene film in ice foam box filled with husk-covered ice was the most effective way in reducing weight loss, maintained higher TA, TSS and the color changes as well as retarding fruit shriveling than that of the other treatments. Fruit stored in the open at ambient condition had the highest weight losses and shortest shelf-life due to rapid yellowing and shriveling. Regarding the cost of storage, ice foam box was significantly reasonable accepted in term of gaining better quality (benefit) comparing to the higher weight losses and unmarketable quality of other treatments.

This study aimed to understand labile metal distribution and water quality associated with agro-industry and farming activities along the Namphong River, a sub catchment of the Mekong River located in NE Thailand. An integrated sampling program was designed to identify the range of potential contaminants in the Namphong River by incorporating active or grab sampling along with passive sampling using the diffuse gradients in thin films technique (DGTs) for the bio available heavy metal forms, field measurement of pH, electrical conductivity, temperature and dissolved oxygen and laboratory-based measurement of total solids, total alkalinity, hardness, nutrients and dissolved organic carbon concentration together with heavy metals (total and filtered (<0.45 µm) fractions). The DGTs were deployed at 10 different sites along approximately 50 km of the Namphong River for 4 days to enable sufficient integrative sampling of heavy metals. One liter of water samples were collected from the sites before and after deployment of the DGTs. Although total and filtered (<0.45 µm) concentrations of cadmium, chromium, copper, lead and zinc in the Namphong River from active sampling significantly exceeded the trigger values of water quality guidelines for protection of freshwater aquatic species, the concentration of metals estimated from DGT data indicated more accurately that the bio available metal levels were below the trigger values and that there were no predicted effects on aquatic species. The agro-industrial area (pulp and sugar mills) was a major potential source of contamination of the Namphong River associated with increased levels of heavy metals (aluminium, chromium, cobalt, iron and manganese) but diluted to insignificant levels in the Namphong River. The release of copper, nickel and lead to the downstream Namphong River occurred in the area of rice and mixed vegetable cultivation and was most likely related to extensive pesticide use. The outcome of this study will help to develop more focused monitoring of specific toxic heavy metals at particular locations on the Namphong River.

The aim of this study was to clarify the changes in N₂O and CO₂ emission from the soil surface, their concentrations in soil gases, and gas diffusion fluxes after application of digested liquid manure (DL) produced by anaerobic digestion of cattle manure slurry. N₂O emission increased more and faster after application of DL compared to after the application of conventional inorganic fertilizer. The N₂O emission rate from the DL was 0.25% of the applied nitrogen. CO₂ emission after the DL application also increased, and the CO₂ emission ratio from the DL was 33% of the applied C. Soil N₂O concentration increased after DL application. The highest soil N₂O concentration occurred earlier than the largest N₂O emission. The increase in CO₂ concentrations near the surface was small. The largest N₂O diffusion flux was observed near the surface, and a negative flux was observed in deeper layers 14 days after DL application. The difference in the CO₂ flux between deeper and surface layers flux was smaller than that in the N₂O flux, which suggests that the contribution of CO₂ generation in deeper layers is larger than that of N₂O.

An evaluation of evaluation systems applied to water supply and sanitation systems in rural areas would contribute to improving the validity and quality of the evaluation results. An evaluation system is supposed to be based on latest indicators in the field, theory-based evaluation principles, in consideration of threats to the validity of the evaluation. A case study of the Mekong Delta Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project (AUSAID Project) is used for a review of its evaluation system. This project was implemented in five provinces in Vietnam for the period from 2000 to 2007. Information on this evaluation is collected from regular project monitoring and evaluation reports and the Activity Completion Report. The author’s work as an evaluation officer for the project improves the understanding of the project’s evaluation approaches. The project evaluation reports serve the purpose of measuring the effectiveness and sustainability of the project’s activities. Several potential threats to the validity of the evaluation include some missing assumptions and intermediate outcome for the project’s impacts. Notwithstanding the above threats, this evaluation system of rural water and sanitation was the first in this field in Vietnam, and its indicators satisfy the evaluation standards. This evaluation of evaluation, based on theory-based evaluation principles, for a specific case of rural water supply project in Mekong Delta has never been conducted before.

Biomass has always been a major source of energy for mankind, and accounts for about 14% of the world’s total energy supply. Biomass is a clean energy resource, considered neutral on CO₂ emissions, that has a high potential for meeting increasing energy demands as a substitute for fossil fuels. Biomass energy sources are abundant in Cambodia. We assess the energy potential of the following non-plantation biomass resources: (1) agricultural residues, (2) animal manure. The production of agricultural residues and animal manure was based on the production of crops obtained from the National Census 2008 and one study site. This information was categorized into: (i) primary residues (paddy straw, sugarcane tops, maize stalks, empty coconut bunches and fronds, palm oil fronds and male bunches etc.) and, (ii) secondary residues (paddy husks, bagasse, maize cobs, coconut shells, coconut husks, coir dust, saw dust, palm oil shells, fiber and empty bunches, etc.), and (iii) animal manure. The estimation of residue generated can be calculated from the residue to product ratio (RPR). To estimate the potential for deriving additional energy from a residue, it is important to establish the present utilization pattern of the residue. The results of energy potential analysis indicate that agricultural residues could have produced 212.11 GJ in 2010. The total annual potential of biogas from animal manure in 2006, 2007 and 2008 was 1357.96 thousand m³, 1432.89 thousand m³ and 1452.66 thousand m³, respectively, and the corresponding energy potential was 29.87 GJ, 31.52 GJ and 31.96 GJ, respectively. If this energy potential can be developed in order to meet the demand for energy, it can reduce the pressure on natural forests, the impact on human health, especially of women and children, and the amount of greenhouse gas emissions.

The study aimed to determine the current utilization practices of rice straw, to describe farmers’ awareness and perception about using rice straw to produce straw mushroom, to determine factors affecting farmers’ acceptance to use this technology, and identify the enablers and constraints in adopting straw mushroom production technology To achieve these objectives, a survey of 417 respondents and focus group discussions were conducted in four villages in Mekong Delta, Vietnam and Central Luzon, Philippines. Interviews of current adopters and key informants of straw mushroom production were also done at those two study sites. The survey showed that majority of rice straw in Mekong Delta, Vietnam and Central Luzon, Philippines was burned. In Mekong Delta, a small percentage of rice straw was used to grow mushroom, left in the field and used to feed cattle while rice straw in the Central Luzon was left in the field, used as feed for cattle and for mulching. The study found that farmers have good knowledge of this subject even low percentage of adopters. Using the Logit model, yet the significant factors affecting the acceptability of the straw mushroom production in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam include household income and household size whereas in Central Luzon, Philippines are household income, farm size and willingness to attend additional trainings related to straw mushroom production. On the other hand, the key informants and straw mushroom growers identified the requirements to enhance farmers adoption of straw mushroom culture such as 1) good quality of mushroom spore, 2) mushroom production site, 3) supply a whole-year production cycle (if mass production), 4) techniques to grow mushroom, 5) available labor, 6) knowledge in pre-processing mushroom in case farmers are unable to sell fresh mushrooms, and 7) mushroom marketing.

Coconut husk has been applied as buffer strips for soil erosion control on slope upland fields in Bohol of the Philippines. However, attention has been paid to the losses of nitrogen and phosphorus components not only those leached from synthetic fertilizer applied in upland fields but also those components released from coconut husk buffer strips. Thus, pretreatment of coconut husk by retting before its installation into the field has been proposed. The objective of this study is to find out the effect of ret treating the coconut husk utilized as buffer strips on eliminating its releasing nitrogen and phosphorus components. Coconut husks were trimmed then minor pounding by hammer were applied to meet the desired porosity of the material as buffer. Retting treatment of 41.34 g in dry mass of coconut husk was carried out by soaking into 1,300 ml of distilled water for 10 days to extract its nitrogen and phosphorus components. Ret treated coconut husk were installed into stainless slope model plot filled with Philippine soil and set at 8 degrees in slope. Another plot was also prepared and installed with untreated coconut husk then rainfall simulation was carried out into both plots. The experimental results showed that the amount of nitrogen released from the plot installed with ret treated coconut husk buffer strip was significantly lower than that of untreated husk buffer strip at 99% significant level. Therefore, it was concluded that 10 days retting treatment of coconut husk for buffer strips was effective on eliminating the release of nutrient particularly on nitrogen from leaching.