This paper examines competition and collaboration among three fields of administration-education, industry and science & technology. After examining how to define the field of administration, the following two points are discussed: 1. For each field of administration, the organizational division and the theoretical classification are compared and their historical changes are described. For educational administration, a structural reform took place in the middle of the Meiji era whereby most professional/vocational education, which used to belong to other areas of administration, became included in the field of education. For industrial administration, taking the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry and its antecedents as a representative example of a supervising organization, it is argued that this field of administration has long existed, and that its main policy instruments have been industrial organization policy, industrial structure policy, industrial science and technology policy, and international trade policy. As for science & technology administration, its functions had been dispersed to various ministries until 1956, when the Science and Technology Agency was established as an organization specifically in charge of science & technology administration. Thus, there arose a structure where the Science and Technology Agency took charge of the overall coordination function on top of a trilateral structure consisting of the Ministry of Education for academia, the Science and Technology Agency for big science, and the Agency of Industrial Science and Technology, Ministry of International Trade and Industry for industrial technology. This configuration ceased to exist in 2001, due to the reorganization of government ministries, and the overall coordination function was strengthened with the birth of the Council for Science and Technology Policy (CSTP) in the Cabinet Office. 2. As an example of competition between educational administration and industrial/science & technology administration, the management of human resources is described in detail, with notable economic growth strategies such as the Doubling Income Policy in the 1960's to increase science and engineering students, the programs in the 1970's to train information processing engineers, and the recent attempt at university evaluation by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. Conversely, some examples of collaboration between these fields of administration are also introduced, including various cases of academic-industry collaboration and the regional cluster program (a policy to promote regional high technology industry). Regarding the CSTP, it is pointed out that the overall coordination by the Council takes place from within a supreme position of the Cabinet and also that it is more powerful than the former Council for Science and Technology. The CSTP covers not only natural sciences and engineering, but also social sciences and humanities. The former fields are promoted by the Science and Technology Basic Law, but the latter are not; thus, it is claimed that a new policy to encourage these fields is required. The Central Education Council has recently been considering the generic ability every graduate should earn from an undergraduate education in Japan, and it termed such ability "gakushi-ryoku," literally meaning the "bachelor's ability." Some scholars are claiming that the discrepancy between expertise gained in universities and the specialized ability required after graduation is on the increase. Common to these problems is that collaborative work between educational and other fields of administration is needed. Educational administration research is therefore anticipated to further expand its scope in order to bring about greater achievements in the educational system.

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Having remained stable from the 1950s to at least the 1980s, Japan's educational administration system now confronts the challenges of drastic restructuring. The main institutions of the system, such as the local school board system and the national treasury's share of compulsory education, have been changed as a part of comprehensive reform for coordinating otherwise autonomous education policy. Most of the recent literature on educational administration reforms tends to emphasize the importance of protecting educational autonomy and independence against a move toward political and administrative integration. In contrast, the present paper addressed this issue from the viewpoint of the differentiation and integration of governmental organizations. Along this line of the argument, three points were discussed as follows: (a) Differentiation (autonomy) and integration (interfusion) of educational administration in the relationship between central and local government and those within the level of local government (b) Differentiation (separation) and integration (coordination) of educational administration in the central government, both of which have vertical and horizontal aspects (c) Redefining the autonomy or independence of educational administration in the context of integration Particularly for the third point, the author suggests a new notion of autonomy or independence in educational administration: autonomy open to policy arguments. Although the literature has justified the educational administration system as autonomous, in the context of comprehensive reform, the system has been criticized as vertically compartmentalized. Similarly, Japanese administration studies, as well have negatively described the nature of such a system as "sectionalism," which refers to a pronounced vertical segregation and resulting non-cooperation between ministries. In contrast to these negative conceptions in the field, this paper adds a new dimension concerning bureaucratic struggles in the policy- making process, reconsidering the notion of administrative "sectionalism." Policy conflicts between different organizations, as described here, can be seen a process of making acceptable claims to the opposition. It is therefore necessary to make a persuasive argument during this process. A new paradigm of the autonomy of educational administration can thus be seen as restructured on the basis of this open process of policy argument.

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The aim of this article is to show the recent reforms in educational administration and their characteristics in England. Recent reforms in public-sector education have included the integration of children's and youth services in order to improve planning and outcomes. Since 1997, the New Labour Government has adopted a neo-liberal policy in public-sector schooling reforms, in which the ideas of marketization, privatization and centralization have been dominant. Critics have pointed to the possible harmful effects of New Public Management, emphasizing Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) and the idea of 'best value'. The New Labour Government has sought to revitalize community by improving the collaboration between the government and civil society. In order to solve community problems, the New Labour Government has promoted Network-based governance to facilitate decision-making that involves all sectors of a community. Network-based governance for education has prioritized the improvement of educational attainment in disadvantaged areas. Education Action Zones (EAZs) and the London Challenge, for example, were initiatives for realizing Network-based governance. The characteristics of Network-based governance prioritize social inclusion and collaboration to achieve 'joined-up government'. The multi-agency nature of children's services proposed in 'Every Child Matters' attempts to strengthen collaboration for delivering social services and to share information concerning children among different organizations. These reforms aim to widen the sphere of educational administration and create a new environment for the public space of education.

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Recently, various reform plans have been formulated which use "cooperation reinforcement," "integration," and "unification" as keywords concerning the partnership of kindergartens and nursery schools. In the enforcement of regulations for authorized early childhood schools, close relations are now called for when it comes to the promotion of infant education and child-care beyond the walls of educational administration and welfare administration. In the field of early childhood care and education, the importance of overcoming the estrangement of educational administration and welfare administration (the so-called "dual administration" or "vertical administration") is seen as one of the important problems that has been advocated until today, especially when it comes to the viewpoint of "the right to receive an equal early childhood care and education. 'The purpose of this paper is to consider the possibilities and fundamental problems concerning the collaboration of educational administration and welfare administration with the "integration" and "unification" of kindergartens and nursery schools, focusing on authorized early childhood schools. The content of this paper is as follows : 1 Recent trends of "integration" and "unification" of kindergartens and nursery schools. 2 Foundation of authorized early childhood schools and their characteristics. 3 Cooperation reinforcement of several fields of early childhood care and education in authorized early childhood schools. 4 Viewpoints and issues on preschool administration. Some important issues are raised from this research. First, in recent years, the merits if ideas as "comprehension of local administration," "rational management," and "promotion of the efficiency of facility management" have been emphasized. This trend has many problems, beginning with the right to receive equal early childhood care and education and the point of view that called for "the improvement of the quality of early child- hood care and education."Second, authorized early childhood schools are different from the unification of kindergartens and nursery schools based on the right to receive equal early childhood care and education, illustrating the vague nature of the system itself. Third, what is important is the partnership of kindergartens and nursery schools aiming at a simultaneous, unified, and secure approach to attain the well-being of both infants and parents. It is desirable that cooperation in terms of the reinforcement of educational and welfare administration accords with the idea of "child and family well-being" be supported and advocated in today's society.

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This paper analyzes the development of prevention of juvenile delinquency and educational administration in the U.S.A., especially from the point of view of integrated services for children in communities. The paper attempts to obtain suggestions from the U.S. experience and research for practice and theory in Japan. The purposes of this paper are, firstly, to analyze the influence of the prevention of juvenile delinquency on schools and educational administration ; secondly, to clarify their roles with the recent development of prevention ; and thirdly, to discover suggestions for collaboration between the juvenile justice system, the police, and the education system. Though juvenile crime has been decreasing for a decade in U.S., it seems that fears about school crime have increased. This may be accounted for by the series of deadly school shootings which have terrified the nation recently and that there have been many portraits of these and other incidents of juvenile violence in the media. Schools often send many youth for punishment and referral to juvenile courts by adopting strict law enforcement policies, such as zero-tolerance policies. But some criticize these get-tough policies. Instead of these policies, school-based prevention and intervention programs have been used at all grade levels from pre-kindergarten through high school. These programs may be targeted to schools in a high-risk area. Many people say that schools are an important location for interventions to prevent or reduce aggressive behavior and should act as a place to keep children and youth out of trouble, in addition to teaching academic and social skills. Some people also argue that it is important for many agencies, including teachers, social workers, police officers and medical workers, to collaborate for coordinated services for children. There is a suggestion here that we should adopt a comprehensive strategy framework for integrating mental health, child welfare, education, substance abuse, and juvenile justice system services. These ideas are based on a belief that the problems of today's children tend to come bundled together, are often complicated, and can be stacked on top of one another over time. Collaboration can also develop the support necessary to implement and sustain multi-dimensional preventive strategies. Collaboration is needed for individuals and organizations from all sectors of the community to come and work together for the purpose of building healthy communities which can support the development of youth. Thus, the collaboration among agencies for children has indeed been connected to the development of communities.

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In a recent article, I noted that according to the "Interna-Externa" theory, a major framework of reference for the legal studies of educational administration, parents should delegate their rights of educating their own children to teachers, and teachers' activities should be free from administrative control. Unless the "Interna-Externa" theory entitles parents to their rights to refuse such a delegation to teachers, the "Interna-Externa" theory would mean that policy-making in education is exclusively the prerogative of professional educators. Public school choice is one of the ideas that, in fact, realizes the parents' right to refuse this delegation to teachers and is something done in order to check the prejudice of professionalism. Takahashi (2007) has criticized this argument concerning the "Interna-Externa" theory. He noted that: [A]lthough many critics assert that the legal study of education law has neglected practical conflicts among teachers, parents and students in schools, recent research in education law has grappled with those conflicts through the analysis of litigation for correcting school activities (p.345). Here I explain why Takahashi (2007) is totally incorrect. My conclusion is that Takahashi's argument, that the "Interna-Externa" theory is not in favor of the prerogative of professional educators, and the argument that the "Interna-Externa" theory does not make administrative activities passive is based on a misunderstanding of the cumulative studies of educational law and administration, has no ground. Moreover, when Takahashi wrote that I discribed the approach of the legal study of education as inevitably reaching a bureaucratized and standardized form of education, he misread and failed to understand my core argument.

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The risks and difficulties surrounding children in Japan have recently become complex and various, while the system of compartmentalized administration and division of services for children at the same time prevent them from accessing appropriate care or services. A holistic approach to the integration of child services should thus be considered. In England, integration and arrangement of child services has recently been promoted through "The Children Act 2004," which was enacted in November 2004. The aims of this paper are as follows: First, the paper examines the process of formation of "The Children Act 2004." Second, this paper confirms the tendency towards the integration of child services by focusing on the "Children's Trust," which plans to expand its activities throughout England. Third, this paper provides a critical consideration of the theory of the "social investment state" which is behind child policy in England by making a thorough examination of the guarantee of the rights of the child. Fourth, this paper will refer to the direction and problems of child services in England and make new suggestions for child services in Japan. "The Children Act 2004" embodied the ideal of "Every Child Matters," published in 2003, as upholding "Accountability and Integration-Locally, Regionally and Nationally" for promoting children's well-being. Section 10 of "The Children Act 2004" requires child service as a duty, with the aim of "cooperation to improve well-being." Under this ideal of the duty of cooperation, child services in local areas have been integrated into the "Children's Trust." The Children's Trust is one among many partnerships between different organizations. The characteristics of the Children's Trust are as follows: 1) Inter-agency, 2) Local, and 3) Shared budget, information and plan. An important part of the background concerning promotion of the integration of child services in England is the existence of the "social investment state." A strategy of social inclusion which targets children and youth was adopted under New Labour based on "social investment." However, the strategy of social inclusion, especially policies for employment and labour, includes both dilemmas and coercion since the strategy has the risk of exclusion for those who could not meet the standards. By the same token, there are some strained relations between "social investment" and "rights of the child" in policy-making for children, with aspects of the "rights of the child" even being placed in low priority. The recently elected Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, espouses the theory of "social investment," and decided to re-arrange cabinet ministries related to child services so that the policies for children as a strategy of "social investment" and "social inclusion" would be promoted strongly by the new government. The dilemma which thus arises is brought into clear focus by the strategy of social inclusion, which should mean governance by a movement that is demanding rights.

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This study considers educational policies in terms of "the Third Way." Welfare Pluralism, the pluralistic provision on welfare service delivery, is recognised in this study as a system concept of the Third Way in which the Voluntary and Community Sector (VCS) is recognised as an important actor. This paper analyses the public and educational policies of the Labour Government focusing especially on the action of the VCS in the United Kingdom (UK). It considers how these educational policies embody Welfare Pluralism and show their meanings and problems. It also considers whether these educational policies are worthy of being described as representative of the Third Way. The tradition of charity in the UK has cultivated Welfare Pluralism. The first Act concerning charity, for example, the Statute of Charitable Uses, was enacted in 1601. As of 31 March 2005 there were 164,000 active general charities in the UK. The Compact, an agreement for working partnerships between the Government and the VCS that ws enacted in 1998, recognised the contribution which the VCS makes to a democratic society and to public service. The Government then engaged in consultations with the VCS in terms of decision-making concerning public policies and played a role as a funder of the VCS. The Compact was expected to change the relationship between Government and the VCS from one of a "Contract Culture" under Conservative Government to one of a "Partnership Culture" that would help cultivate Welfare Pluralism. These movements have had an impact on educational policies as a part of public policies. Educational policies, moreover, have provided particular conditions for the shift to Welfare Pluralism. This is the progress of what has been called Inter-Agency Working (IAW). The IAW is a concept to provide seamless holistic services for children and their families at one-stop shops through collaboration between public, private and voluntary agencies. The green paper Every Child Matters in 2003 is the base of the IAW. This paper proposed that Sure Start Children's Centres and Extended Schools provide these services as one-stop shops. In these institutions, too, the VCS plays an important role. The IAW has the following problems, however: (1) Funding from the public sector: a) The switch from grant or core funding to fee or strategic funding. Funding shows a tendency to be more closely tied to contracts or outcomes, and b) Concentration of contracts and funding to big organisations, (2) Concerning proof of outcomes: The outcomes-led approach stereotypes the action of the VCS. In conclusion, the Labour Government has emphasized the concept of partnership and has agreed to the Compact, but has in practice it has taken over the system of Contract Culture in the operation of partnership. One result of this could be that peculiarities of the VCS are then spoiled and educational services are stereotyped. Real Welfare Pluralism does not call for this result, and the real Third Way requires different systems or operations.

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This article clarifies the significance and problems of forming professional leadership practice in an American urban school district by examining the current school reform of the Boston Public Schools controlled by the mayor of Boston. In American urban school districts, how school reform can be improved in order to advance student academic achievement has not in fact been realized, even though many districts have tried and practiced a variety of reforms such as school autonomy, "integrated governance" and standardized testing. This article attempts to analyze one practice of professional leadership for reform, using the ideas of Richard Elmore, especially what he calls "school reform from the inside out" and "distributed leadership." The Boston Public Schools are currently well known for the "Broad Prize for an Urban School District." This reform by Superintendent Tom Payzant (1995-2006) exemplifies one of the most successful cases of advancing academic achievement in an urban school district. The system of school autonomy, the School Site Council, mayoral control, integrated governance, and standardized testing, the MCAS test are key elements of this program's success. Especially notable is that even under a system of integrated governance like that in Boston, democratic process is still regarded highly, with organizing and nominating committees as well as selection of a superintendent and school committees, by citizens. Payzant also changed the organization chart, which proved to be important in making the professional relationship between the central office and each school more reciprocal. Professionals play important roles between these areas as well, mediating ideas from each, while the Instructional Leadership Team (ILT) in schools is critical, as well, as it empowers school autonomy through the teachers themselves. The Boston Plan for Excellence (BPE), a non-profit, independent educational think tank, has contributed to these reforms by Payzant. The BPE first finds out the key elements for school reform, which it calls the "Six Essentials," and then gives guidance on how to use these essentials for planning school improvement. Sending its change and content coaches to schools also helps teachers as they implement school reform. A more important role the BPE has played has been the creation of a professional development program called "Collaborative Coaching and Learning (CCL)." CCL promotes reflective learning by teachers and improves their practice in the classroom. BPE coaches join and support this process of learning. In conclusion, this article unveils the significance of reciprocal professional relationships and a coaching program empowering and developing teachers for school improvement. These relationships also show the necessity of the school board as an educational system of independence from general administration.

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This article aims to clarify the importance of the devolution of power and authority to schools in the Japanese educational finance system. With this goal in mind, the systems of educational finance in Japan, the United Kingdom, and Sweden are analyzed from the perspective of authority distribution between the central government, local government, and schools. "School" here is defined as public compulsory primary and secondary schools. In the United Kingdom's educational finance system, the central government has great power, while in Sweden local government is the main authority in the educational finance system, yet both countries promote reform decentralization at the school level. There is, however, the reality that in the Japanese educational finance system the school is not actually given much authority or power. Japanese elementary and secondary schools thus have many difficulties facing them in terms of acquiring adequate school budgets for school administration and effective budget allocation. In recent years, contract research by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) has shown that approximately 70-80% of Japanese head teachers feel a deficiency of budget and a lack of authority. On the other hand, MEXT has been emphasizing a policy of building up "attractive schools." Not surprisingly, this policy has not made much progress because of this lack of ultimate authority. In the international context countries such as the U.S.A., Australia, New Zealand, and various EU nations have seen decentralization at the school level in terms of teacher salaries, the right of employment, and allocation of the school budget. The actual situation of school decentralization, especially the political context in the U.K. and Sweden, are clarified here with the aim of promoting Japanese decentralization to schools. Nowadays, the Japanese government promotes not so much decentralization to schools but to local governments to build up effective and attractive schools. The importance of school-based management and budgets must therefore be recognized. Comparative analysis of the U.K, Sweden and Japan points to the importance of schools in the system of educational finance and administration. This paper first outlines the educational finance system of Japan, the U.K. and Sweden. Then the relevancy between the level of decentralization at the school level and the features of educational finance systems in general are examined. One finding is that there is little direct relevance, in terms of the level of decentralization for schools, concerning the political context of each country. The political background and context of decentralization to school are then investigated, followed by a discussion of the theoretical importance of decentralization to the school level, referring to the theory of School Based Management (SBM) and School Based Budget (SBF). Finally, the importance of the promotion of decentralization to schools, and the conditions needed to achieve this, are examined.

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This paper aims to clarify the policy concerning private high schools at the prefectural level from the perspective of the governmental subsidy for these schools. Prefectures have the discretion to decide private high school policy, which includes the discretion to decide the items of subsidies for these schools. The most important job of prefectures is, in fact, to hand out subsidies to high schools. Subsidies from the central government in turn help those prefectural subsidies. Since the governmental subsidy for private high schools is a subsidy of encouragement, prefectures do not have to follow those items listed in the governmental subsidy. This research attempts to show the diversity of private high school policies by analyzing the items of governmental subsidies and prefectural subsidies. An analysis was done by making quadrants from two axes (the financial capability index and the number of students going to private high schools), then locating all prefectures into types and selecting certain prefectures from each type and comparing their transition concerning specific items. There are three results following this analysis. First, although prefectures have the discretion to decide subsidy items, prefectural subsidy items are basically dependant on similar subsidy items of the central government. Second, financial strength has been demonstrated to have more of an effect than the number of students in private high schools. Third, in prefectures like Tokyo, which have more private than public high schools, private high schools can create their own subsidy items, independent from governmental subsidies.

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