Recently, either in the center or in the provinces, policy makers have shown great concerns with the "Evaluation & Review" of the public education. There are some reasons for that, but the foundation of these concerns would be "the deregulation". The deregulation did formulate the self-managing schools, but on the other hand, it certainly shook the legitimating. The creation of originality of schools caused changes in the legitimating. So policy makers try to put the function, which can reconstruct it with parents' and communities' help, to the "Evaluation & Review". This situation has the following five specific characteristics, which are produced by the directivity of the structural reform : 1) the policy of "Evaluation & Review in education" has developed both in the center and in the provinces. 2) Even though it is said that the deregulation can be done by each provinces, but it is true that there are official notices from center, which is far from what we call decentralization. 3) The "Evaluation & Review in education" covers a wide range : the level of education administration to individual school activities. However they try to construct the common system, which includes all the range of these levels. 4) This trend has been developed based on not only an intention but also on the complicated concerns related with the reform. 5) So the policy of "Evaluation & Review in education" includes some different contents or directivity, which can be accepted from the persons who stand the different concerns. Consequently "Evaluation & Review" seems nobody evaluated can refuse this system. Even though, educational policy has mentioned the necessity of "Evaluation & Review", it never showed any definite what the "Evaluation & Review" should be. In order to make this situation better, we should decide the order of priority. Besides we need a perspective how constructs the relation between the each "Evaluation & Review" totally, and a programme which practices it. At the same time we should call on the study of educational administration to reflect on its scholars-centered situation. It should be the reviewing against the lack of construction of the theory of "Evaluation & Review of educational administration", not just "the lack of effectiveness" that we couldn't contribute in the educational policy. Now we put many kinds of problems to "Evaluation & Review" so easily, and this causes a trend of "evaluation-oriented", but we consistently argue how important "Evaluation and Review" is. Many articles or treatises still leave practical matters to education boards or schools. To make "Evaluation & Review" works in the right way, the author tries to produce some teaching materials (including textbooks or videos) that tell how and at what level the provinces, the education boards, schools should practice. More over, he tries to train the facilitators, who take the function that extend how to put them into practice, and the persons who train the facilitators and so on through this project.

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The Constitution of Japan (Article 26) sets forth basic public educational policy as follows : "All people shall have the right to receive an equal education correspondent to their ability, as provided by law. "Educational policy evaluation should thus be done from the standpoint of securing the right to receive an education. It is a useful approach to examine this question from two dimensions, one of which is an emphasis on an external guarantee of rights (the right to attend school, equality of educational opportunity) while the other is an internal guarantee of rights (the right to learn, the promotion of full growth and development, the pursuit of liberty and happiness). We note, utilizing this approach, that the serious problem of long-term absence from school or refusal to attend school by children with psychosomatic diseases or who are maladjusted in Japan can be seen as caused by compulsory attendance at school without suitable instruction, in other words, because of the conflict of these two dimentions in securing the right to an education. At the beginning of the academic year 2002, Shiki City in Saitama Prefecture, the population of which is about 65,000, started a "Home Study Project" whereby municipal school teachers visit each home or private educational institution for children refusing to attend school. This project is a trial of public home instruction, transcending the national policy of special class/room in schools or public educational institutions for long-absent children aimed at adapting these children to school. The "Home Study Project" was produced through educational policy evaluation and a children's needs assessment by Shiki City with the hope of guaranteeing every child the right to receive a suitable education correspondent to his/her needs instead of abilities. An evaluation of this project should, then, be not only quantitative but also qualitative, accounting, for example, how and what educational practices and instructions are created according to children's needs. Educational policy/project evaluation should be done from the standpoint of a guarantee of the right to receive a suitable education correspondent to each person's needs.

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The 1988 World Education Report, edited by UNESCO, mentions increased concerns about the evaluation of teachers' performance among policy-makers, which is also true in Japan. We witness teacher evaluation policies being articulated locally as well as nationally, mostly based on the principle of managerialism. Current policies tend to emphasise the link between the assessment of teachers' performance and personnel decisions : decisions related to salary and promotion among others. They also claim that teacher evaluation should help teachers develop their own professional competence. The logic of current policies, however, needs to be examined in the light of the knowledge base drawn from experiences concerned at home and abroad. For example, it is reported in the U.S. that performance-related pay schemes fostered competition among teachers and thus worked against their collaboration. We can now look into the effects of Teaching Personnel Assessment, introduced by Tokyo Metropolitan Education Authority in April 2000, making use of the results of a survey conducted by Professor Urano, the University of Tokyo. Teachers in Tokyo have to go through procedures of an 'authentic personnel assessment concerned with their ability and performance'. This is intended to contribute to 'developing their talent and ability and also activating school organizations'. The assessment procedures include a self goal-setting arrangement, since it is recognized that the procedures must be seen to be fair and trustable. Heads and deputy heads make an assessment of individual teachers. The survey asked a number of heads and teachers working in Tokyo how they consider the assessment. The examination of their responses shows that it is difficult to see the intended effects. The survey result also reveals that teachers in Tokyo are generally negative toward the idea of either pupils or parents participating in the process of teacher evaluation. Given deficiencies of the present procedures, teachers being neither informed of their own assessment result nor given a right to appeal against a seemingly unjustified assessment, such attitudes on the part of teachers is understandable. However, it follows from the idea of teachers assuming professional responsibility for the aims and means of education to pupils, parents and local community that the process of teacher evaluation should be open to the interested parties. The quality of education is related to the process of teacher evaluation. And thus an alternative conception of teacher evaluation, opposed to the one based on managerialism and contractual accountability, needs to be developed. We can see that the most important part of teaching ability is to try to arrive at better decisions or choices about essentially ambiguous aims and means of education, holding continuous dialogue with colleagues, pupils and parents. Such an understating, which sees teaching as practical inquiry, will lead to a democratic and participative conception of teacher evaluation, which should contribute to a rise in the quality of education as well as in teachers' professional ability.

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In Nippon (Japan), self-evaluation became the obligation of all universities in 1991. The National Institution for Academic Degrees was reorganized to implement its work as a national organization for university evaluation, and it began reviews of national governmental universities in 2000. This year of 2002, the Central Council for Education proposed deployment of nationally recognized agencies for both institutional and program accreditation aimed at all higher education institutions. These events show that institutionalized evaluation is now very much a part of Nipponese higher education administration. It looks to be an imposition of restrictions on the self-governance that universities have had. But this installation of an evaluation system is also accompanied by a plan for reorganization of national governmental universities into corporations. Moreover, along with this is a plan for easing regulations concerning the establishment of private and local governmental institutions. That is, the introduction of institutionalized evaluation has also become, in effect, reinforcement of university self-governance, too. Furthermore, because the main contributors to external evaluation agencies are drawn from universities, this can be seen as an extension of university self-governance as well. Even today, Nipponese universities do not exercise their self-governance, however, in terms of academic autonomy, successfully. National and local governmental universities are operated as the parts of governmental organizations. Private universities are run under detailed administrative regulations. This heteronomy has resulted in weaknesses in self-evaluation and an immaturity in external evaluation systems in higher education. Practices of higher education demand an autonomy based on academic freedom. Evaluation is thus a double-edged sword that can work for enrichment as well as for destruction of quality in higher education. The motivation of institutionalized evaluation in the reformation movement is then an enforcement of autonomy and an enrichment in terms of quality. But motivation is not sufficient, either, to generate results. The means must also be present. The university is an institution. The evaluation agency is also an institution. To function as institutions we need management like that which Peter F. Drucker describes. Management is the means. Management was first developed in business institutions, but it is an organ, a discipline and a profession indispensable for every type of institution. This article describes the Nipponese settings for the institutionalization of higher education evaluation from the perspective of world trends. The article also examines a proposal on evaluation of faculty productivity in the report of the Council of Regulatory Reform of December 2001, which is perhaps the only document available which illustrates the relationship of evaluation and management among concerned national policy papers.

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This paper aims to clarify the actual condition and its regulation factor of the independent source-of-revenue injection performance of public school institution maintenance services. This study will focus particularly on the independent source-of-revenue injection (= additional independent service) that is directed to the auxiliary service with the premise that there is the possibility of independent administration of the subsidies in cities, towns and villages. Following are the results of this analysis : First, it was shown that originally a structure exists which permits cities, towns and villages to invest an independent source of revenue in a subsidy system. Since the auxiliary standard of the subsidy over which the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture have jurisdiction in the 1970s was low, cities, towns and villages had to use an independent source of revenue for the construction of schools which satisfied the national minimum. On the other hand, the auxiliary standard of a subsidy has been improved in the 1990s by the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture. Therefore, when cities, towns and villages build their schools, it has become possible for them to invest an independent source of revenue for the purpose of realizing the construction designed and planned by themselves. Secondly, the following points were clarified from the survey conducted by the author regarding the school institution maintenance service after the 1990s to the cities, towns and villages officials nation-wide. The first point that became clear from the survey is that the amount of the investment of the independent source of revenue had exceeded the auxiliary standard in the cities, towns and villages and was undertaking the additional independent services. The second point, the result of a multi-linear regression analysis about the regulation factor of the rate of an additional independent service shows that, in cities, towns and villages, the information gathering activities when constructing schools and financial power affect the rate of independent service in the model which uses the index of financial condition of cities, towns and villages with a population more than 30,000. This reaches the conclusion that cities, towns and villages, which have strong financial power, are able to use their own revenue for constructing schools. Furthermore, regression was not significant nor did a causal relationship exist in the model of cities, towns and villages with a population less than 30,000 and/or all cities, towns and villages. The third point of this study shows that no model was significant when adopting the number of the population to the analysis.

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The purpose of this paper is to analyze personnel exchange with a board-of-education secretariat and a school for a prefectural board of education and a prefectural school. In an educational administration reform in recent years, an improvement in the functions of the board-of-education secretariat has been noted. Attention has increased for this determined function of the board of education in conventional research, but recently attention has also increased for the execution function so that clerical employees who work there are also increasing in importance as candidates for research. Although treatment about such personnel exchange has occurred in some previous research, there is no analysis based on systematic data (with much analysis based on the law as learned by experience). Moreover, there is also little analysis concerning consciousness of the difference in actual conditions by the prefecture about the management of such personnel administration. This needs to be investigated especially the structure and a serial changes of such personnel exchange as fundamental work. This is a reason for having done this research. This paper considers the relation of personnel administration of each prefecture and a teacher's promotion as personnel affairs in which listening comprehension and data investigations were conducted. Personnel exchange was expanded to include Shimane Prefecture, Shizuoka Prefecture, and Saitama Prefecture, in order to include move on personnel exchange. The target organizations were prefectural schools, such as each prefecture's board of education and high schools, visually-impaired schools, and a special education schools. The following two points have become clear as a result of this investigation. The first point is that the scale of personnel exchange has expanded in the long run in all prefectures, and the scale of personnel exchange is continuing its expansion little by little, even if it is a time when the expansion of the scale of the whole staff's reassignment was stopped, a point which should be noted. The second point is that in each prefecture relations ware originally made between the cultivation of a school managerial position and personnel exchange. While performing personnel exchange, although Shimane Prefecture was conscious of the cultivation of a school managerial position, Shizuoka Prefecture was developing personnel exchange continuously strongly while being conscious of the cultivation of school managerial positions. In Saitama Prefecture, in order to adopt the school managerial position using an examination, unlike these two other prefectures, the management of personnel administration has also had a strong relation with appointment by examination. This result shows that there are peculiarities for every prefecture concerning employment and personnel administration at the prefectural stage, and the study offers the viewpoint of a new analysis to conventional research which was not observed, this peculiarity for every prefecture. Although such a result came out, analysis was inadequate as to how the peculiarity by each prefecture was enacted. Therefore, this is a future subject to help us recommend a more general grasp through research of personnel exchange which has advanced as investigation of more prefectures has been included, as well as including elementary schools and junior high schools as the object.

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This study focuses on the issue of ODA education policy toward soft-oriented projects as a case approach to analyze agenda setting at the central government level. Its purpose is to examine the factors of agenda formulation of soft-oriented projects policy, as well as the factors of inaction. To achieve this purpose, Kingdon's "Policy Window" model of policy science is applied to analyze the policy process. It has been pointed out that Japanese Education ODA has given too much emphasis on hard-projects, and the policy shift from a hard-projects orientation to a soft-projects orientation has been suggested in many international conferences and policy papers. Suddenly, in the administrative ad hoc committee on the International Education Cooperation of 2001, a soft-projects oriented educational ODA policy was set as the agenda. As the result of examining the factors and backgrounds of this "problem stream" of this soft-projects oriented policy becoming tangible as a policy agenda, there were also demands from ODA policy, such as preparing for the next G8 Summit meeting, the formulation of ODA policy for the education sector and its issues, and the visibility of Japanese aid. There were also financial reasons for soft-projects, as they can be expected to show a high cost-effective performance. Contrastingly, four determinants were found as the reasons for inaction concerning this soft-projects oriented "policy stream" as follows : 1) the technical feasibilities were quite low because of a lack of educational experts related to soft-projects, 2) the value system of the education ODA policy community functioned as a constrain, 3) hard-projects were more effective to expand the share of education ODA and easier for policy evaluation, 4) there was an inadequate mechanism of ODA policy formulation in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Finally, coupling with the "problem stream" and the "policy stream", it was the "political stream" that made it possible to set up this soft-projects oriented policy. This "political stream" was the emergence of the Koizumi administration in April 2001, which pushed this stream to open a "policy window" with overwhelming public support.

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One of the main issues of school choice systems has been how to understand the logic of market working in the opportunity of choice. People advocating school choice, however, have aimed to integrate racial groups, to encourage ownership of schools, and to build local or professional community. We can find two orientations in these aims, building community based on sameness and creating society involving different races. Realizing these two orientations requires us to coordinate two logics of recognizing commonality and of controlling people so as not to withdraw from larger society into their community. In order to understand the way to coordinate such activities, this paper analyzes the arguments of Mary A. Raywid and Clifford W. Cobb, because they advocate building community through school choice. This analysis can clarify the conflict points of political thoughts in the United States that lie behind their arguments. In Raywid's argument, there are five characteristics : (1) criticizing the voucher system, (2) regarding diversity among schools as important, (3) recognizing schools based on some types of sameness, (4) advocating Public School Choice, which means the system of dividing power among the people involved in education, and (5) taking the role of school boards seriously. Her logic of recognizing commonality is the following : in order to meet the demands of diverse students, we need a school community consisting of students having the same educational needs, and of parents and teachers having the same educational philosophy. She takes seriously the system of dividing power, and the role of school boards setting the standards between diversity and sameness in school choice. This is her way to control people so as they will not withdraw from larger society. On the other hand, there are four characteristics in Cobb's argument : (1) being skeptical about professionalism in education, (2) regarding the needs of racial minorities as important, (3) supporting a voucher system, and (4) having the ideal of a pluralistic integrated society. His logic of recognizing commonality is the following : we should give racial minorities the power to build their own community, because they need it as a right in their life. He thinks people can learn the habits of commitment to larger society in their community, and advocates realizing social integration among racial communities through a voucher system. His conception does not involve the logic of controlling people from withdrawing from society. The differences of their conceptions depend on how to understand the relation between the tradition of community, and the dialogical ability by which people can communicate with others belonging to different communities. This also shows the difference of their background thoughts. That is, one is liberalism, regarded as Raywid's standpoint, which understands tradition as a set of resources to create dialogical ability, and entrust their reasonable usage to professionals in education. The other is communitarianism, regarded as Cobb's standpoint, which understands that tradition contains the opportunity to create dialogical ability in itself. This difference reflects today's conflict in political thought in the U.S., but we can recognize that their conceptions can be from the same standpoint under specific conditions.

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The relation between educational finance and household economy has increased in its instability with changes in the policy of the welfare state. From the viewpoint of "security at the lowest level, "educational finance treats only the low-income hierarchy as the target of protection, and particular concerns about other household economies have not been examined. However, the wealth gap of the household economy has been discussed in recent years and the "unequal society" to which this correlation with "equality of opportunity of education" has been strengthened. Moreover, many household economies feel more educational expense increases and come to have distrust of the education system. In this problematical situation, this article analyzes the following: 1. Firstly, a time series analysis concerning household economy income and educational expenses is done. The preceding research on educational finance study is referred to in this analysis. And Educational expenses making for "hierarchical consumption", in addition to the distortion of "equality of the opportunity of education" by "hierarchical consumption", is pointed out. The relation between new liberal educational reforms and "hierarchical consumption" is considered from the viewpoint of revaluing the modern meaning of "equality of opportunity of education" which is based on the modern theory of the welfare state. 2. Secondly, the adjustment of educational finance and household economy is examined. First of all, the current state of educational finance theory is pointed out by which an effective opinion was not found concerning the relation between the household economy and educational finance. Because there is a theoretical opposition between "logic of the supply side" and "logic of the demand side", moreover, the relation between educational finance and household economy is mainly caught through the income re-distribution function. However, the resource allocation function of educational finance works better in severe situations of government finances and household economy, and the resource allocation function is proven to be effective as a positive function of finance. To improve "inequality of the opportunity of the education" by "hierarchical consumption" and to develop the equalization function of educational finance, it is clarified that the actual service provision ability in resource allocation is effective. 3. Finally, to achieve a positive function of educational finance, recognition of the "family's failure" in education policy and financial empowerment for regional government is important.

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The arguments of school choice have been disputed mainly around the function of the market in education, competition and hierarchy formation. As a consequence, these arguments have led to concerns about the enlargement of inequality in educational opportunities. But the discussion between Walford and D. Hargreaves in the Oxford Review of Education (1996) on school choice called our attention to other aspects which these ideas offer. Focusing on the pluralization of social values which modern nation states should tackle, involving the perspective of 'potential beyond its intent, 'this paper considers the significance of educational reformation based on the 'choice' system implemented during the Thatcher government as its key principle. As a 'modified libertarian, 'Hargreaves insists on diversity and choice need to be positively stimulated to sustain democracy in pluralist societies. His argument proposes the issue being beyond simply supporting 'market discipline' and turns our attention to the issue of democracy in a pluralist society that the U.K. currently faces and questions the propriety of foundation of non-Christian state-maintained schools. Further, he justifies State intervention to promote marketing functions in the education system. Walford, though accepting the potential of school choice in plural democracy, refutes the belief that the educational system based on diversity and choice under Conservative ideology automatically advances towards the reduction of social problems. Well-designed regulations are needed for the system to function under its educational intent for social equality. Walford states his views on the essential balance that needs to be drawn in a pluralist society between the rights of parents to educate their children according to their beliefs and the wider general society. From such a point of view, Walford pays his attention to the 1993 Education Act which represented a conceptual shift in the U.K.'s public educational system. This was made plausible by using the model of analysis of Stephen Ball : 'policy text' and 'policy discourse.' The text of the 1993 Education Act was supposed to enable the foundation of Islam State schools, but the actual realizations were hindered under Conservative discourse. It was not until the Labour discourse came to power, with its will to support schools for minorities, that such foundations grew to become socially accepted. What Walford found was that the Conservative policies may well have other potentials beyond their intent and objective. Arguing the need for institutional correspondence to meet pluralist educational demands, he proposes as a new issue the redefinition of the role of the State needed in such a system, based on the interest of values which society should commonly share. We have to share the value for tolerance in a pluralist society, accepting diversity and respecting the existence of different values. Walford believes that the National Curriculum should uphold such a principle. Pluralist education can only be formed on such a principle. The text of the 1993 Education Act referring to sponsored grant-maintained schools involved finding a way towards coexistence of minority cultures and an approach towards recognizing principles to be commonly shared in the U.K.

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This paper examines the implications of "Neighborhood School Plans" in terms of how they unfolded in Milwaukee City District, Wisconsin. During the 1970s to 1990s periods, many urban school districts dissolved "Neighborhood Schools" so as to achieve racial integration among their students by busing and School Choice. However, in a new era of the 21st century, many districts have started shifting back to historical Neighborhood Schooling so as to reduce the busing-burden among non-white students. The particular version of the plan in this paper as it developed in the Milwaukee City District reevaluates the merits of neighborhood schooling, which is based on the Attendance Area Zone policy. Under this initiative, the working definition of a neighborhood school is "a Milwaukee Public school with an attendance area and that serves the students who live there, and where 70% of the students can walk to schools". The plan is expected to reduce the number of students riding buses to school from 70,000 a day to about 50,000 a day, saving the district about $15 million a year. The specific case of a neighborhood school in Milwaukee City is considered in this paper using collected data from a visit to Milwaukee City District from 2000 to 2001. The particular neighborhood school, Hi-Mount Community School, which is the object of the study, had been converted into a Community School in 1997 under the last principal, Spencer Korte, who became a superintendent of the district in 1999. "Community school" is a kind of concept on which a Neighborhood School is to be constructed. Under the district's plan of Neighborhood School they plan to extend their K-5 (Kindergarten to 5th grade) programming into K-8 by adding 6 to 8 grades so as to provide more spaces for students who live in their own attendance area zone. In addition they are going to provide "Before and After School Programs" in order to encourage parents to send their children to the neighborhood school in Hi-mount. In conclusion, this paper examines the possibilities and limits on a neighborhood school concept. These possibilities are as follows : First, they can reduce busing-burden mostly for non-white students and saving the district's budget. Secondly, they can meet the needs of students and their families through providing welfare services such as day-care programs, recreation and community services during school hours. So as to provide those services each school is to expand their partnerships with community agencies and organizations. Thirdly, they can help communities to regain a true sense of neighborhoods. However, we can point out the main problem above this plan as follows : they enlarge the problem of racial segregation based on residential patterns. Thus we should reconsider the history of "changes in Neighborhood Schoolings".

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In the last 30 years of Twentieth century, school education confronted with some difficult problems such as bullying, juvenile delinquency, escape from class, vandalism and school refusal in Japan. There are many causes, but it is certain that three main educational forces (family, community and school) have declined. It is necessary to restore these educational forces and to create school, family, community partnership (SFCP). But in Japan, the management of many schools has had a 'closed nature' to parents and residents. For that reason, SFCP is not going ahead easily. Although this partnership policy is emphasized in recent educational reform, it has not spread to the national level. It is necessary for prefectural and municipal boards of education to show leadership and to create various conditions for SFCP. The aim of this paper to clarify the necessary conditions and roles of educational administration to promote SFCP. We chose Kochi prefecture as a research field. In this prefecture, educational reform has been promoted under the leadership of a governor since 1997 and SFCP is positioned as an important policy. In the concrete, the 'Community Conference for Education' in all municipalities and the 'School Council for Openness of School' was established. In addition, a 'Community Education Supervisor' (CES) was dispatched by all municipalities from the prefecture. We tried an interview survey for 5 CESs and a questionnaire survey for 53 CESs. Contents of the interview are recorded and all protocols were transcribed. Responses to the questionnaire survey were 39 (73.6%) of 53 CESs. As a result of analysis of this data, it was confirmed that next four conditions are important to promote SFCP. The first condition is to create a place of meeting for school staff, parents and residents. In other prefectures, opinions of these parties are heard but many are laid aside or neglected. In Kochi prefecture, each CES reported these opinions to the superintendent, and if possible, planned and implemented educational programs. The' Community Conference for Education' in Kochi prefecture is a typical model. The second condition is to arrange a coordinator. In Kochi prefecture, each CES planned and practiced many SFCP activities. This data showed that human conditions are very important. The boards of education should arrange a coordinator for SFCP if possible, but in general it is difficult to arrange the CESs in all municipalities due to budget conditions. But each school and community can establish a small organization which is composed of parents, residents and teachers. The third condition is exchange of information among CESs. They have little experience of SFCP activities. Because they need various ideas, the boards of education have to hold a training meeting periodically. The last condition is financial aid to SFCP activities. Many CESs pointed out that SFCP activities need some budget, but it is not an indispensable condition. In other words, finance is a supplementary condition. Fortunately, Kochi prefecture is disbursing a subsidy to many municipalities, because there is a difference in financial power among municipalities, so many SFCP activities have been developed.

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1. The Characteristics That Teachers Are Asked to Have. The characteristics that teachers are expected to possess can be divided into three areas : special expertise on subjects, special expertise in the teaching profession, and general education. Special expertise on subjects involves not only knowledge of one's own field but also with regard to different school kinds and teaching environments. Thus, these must be seen as different than specialized knowledge in universities and graduate schools. Special expertise in the teaching profession includes knowledge of class management and other skills acquired through on-the-spot experience. The area of 'general education' is thought to be a socially universal education, including knowledge of the Constitution. Moreover in Japan adopting long-term social experiences is also considered meaningful as a way of teacher training. 2. Re-Defining the Specialization License. Though a basic teaching license naturally requires that licentiates possess the above three areas of expertise in 'sufficient balance', there are some problems with the present specialization license. For example the curriculum is not considered suitable when it exceeds the level of expertise required by the basic license. In other words, the field of the license is not necessarily clear. It should be possible to classify a teacher's expertise by the contents of their speciality into the acquisition of subject knowledge and their capability in connection with school management, personnel management and educational administration. 3. Positioning of Special Licensees. The issued number of special licenses is alarmingly few. So the abolition of the term of validity and the requirements for being a university graduate have been proposed with a view towards 'practical use' promotion. Although such special license holders do not pass through the cultivation stage of becoming a teacher, they often possess the same knowledge and skill as specialization license holders. 4. The System of Updating Teacher Licensing and the Teacher Training System. The Central Council for Education took a negative position for updating the system's introduction and proposed the implementation of training based on the construction of personnel management for teachers who show poor leadership skills, performance record consultations for teachers with 10 years experience, and so on. Even without considering the completeness and diversification of content issues in teacher training, the evaluation of training and the practical use of training results will be a challenge regardless of whether it is conducted in public or in private. The teacher's ability influences the quality of education in schools directly. And we cannot overlook the inclusion of the accountability of parents within the specialty nature of a teacher who can create a school which is a better 'place of learning'. The expectation for teachers to create an 'open-school' by drawing on the cooperation of the local community is also great. In reforming the education system it can be said that to the extent that teachers can demonstrate their professional expertise, i.e., advanced special knowledge and techniques that clearly distinguish them from nonprofessionals, the system will flourish. Also, their ability to promote collaboration with parents and local residents, (who are not specialists) is of great importance.

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It has been viewed as natural that the nation-state or government assumes important responsibilities for the content of education, the maintenance and supervision of schools, and the reshuffling of teachers in the school education system. In Japan too, however, educational reforms, which have decentralization and deregulation as their keywords, have been implemented from the latter half of the 1990's. For example, a new system in which the school district system was relaxed and parents can choose for themselves the school that their children might enter, began in 2000 in Shinagawa Ward, Tokyo. Moreover, research into the Charter-School movement in America has been done rapidly in Japan recently. The government authorities, in part, have also prepared for an amendment to the laws in order to establish a Charter-School in Japan within two or three years. Under the "Nation-State's Responsibility for School Education," the theme of the subject of our research in the Japan Educational Administration Society, we did an historical analysis in the first year (1999), followed by comparative research of some countries in the second year (2000). This year (2001), as a conclusion for these three years of research, we attempted to analyze the meanings and problems of some of the policies regarding School-Choice. First, Shigeo Kodama (Ochanomizu University) introduced the theories of Bowles and Gintis, Brighous, Fraser, and Abowitz, in respect to public service in education. Next, Yoshio Ogiwara (Johetsu University of Education) stated that the Ministry of Education drastically switched its policy concerning the School-Choice System in December 1996, but that in practice the form after that continued to be a conventional one of direction and notification from the central government to the local government. Finally, Isao Kurosaki (Tokyo Metropolitan University) stated that it is important for people (the nation and residents) to respect various senses of values in order to form such school schemes in the present-day multicultural society and then carry out a School-Choice System. There were also many questions to the reporters on these arguments after the three presentations, but to our regret the discussion was on different planes throughout. Because we could not consider at what point the theories about this chiefly America-centered School-Choice System (School-Choice, Charter-School, Voucher system) would or could actually connect with the situation in Japan or not. Issues of educational deregulation and changes in public education will likely be opposed in the Japanese nation or amongst those with political power, to say nothing of academic societies. It is important to foresee clearly what will become of the relationship between the school and students/parents and how the community will change, by the reforms of deregulation such as was discussed here.

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1. This year's theme. This year is the last of a three-year special research project on the usefulness of educational administration research. We discussed the following topics : the first year, which was on "Research on Educational Administration and the Educational Policy Making Processes," and the second year, which was on "The Usefulness of Educational Administration Research for Educational Administration Practice." The task force set up the above-mentioned topic as that for the third year, based upon these two previous years' sessions. 2. Three presentations. First, Toyokazu Urano of the University of Tokyo made a presentation on the actual situation of and problems in training researchers of educational administration at his university. He mentioned the changing situation of his university, such as the increase of the number of graduate students with different educational backgrounds and the introduction of a new, highly competitive system. He also pointed out the necessity of training practical researchers as well as professionals who would have advanced knowledge and skills. Second, Takeaki Nakadome of Kyushu University reported on the situation of his graduate school, which has accepted many students for in-service training. According to Nakadome, though training of school leaders had become an important task, there are many limitations for a single graduate school to provide sufficient training programs for this purpose. Therefore, it will be imperative to set up cooperation among graduate schools, partnerships between graduate schools and the boards of education, and support by academic associations such as the JEAS. Third, Shinichi Yamamoto of the University of Tsukuba gave a presentation of the system and actual situation of training of researchers of educational administration in the U.S.A. He suggested, as general characteristics of American graduate schools, a systematized training program, many kinds of financial supports for students, and close relationships between research funds and research activities. He then argued for the specific features of schools of education, especially in the field of educational administration and management. According to Yamamoto, many graduate students in this field are professional-orientated and self-supported part-time students. 3. Discussion. The following questions were mainly raised after the three presentations. In the diversification of the purpose of graduate education, how are the graduate schools or professors there trying to respond to these demands? What abilities are needed for the researchers of educational administration, who are in charge of educating and training professionals as well as academics? On the increase of the number of doctoral courses in the field of education, isn't it necessary to set up some common standards? Through the discussion, we came to a common understanding that more practical abilities are demanded for researchers of educational administration. Therefore, as a more important issue, how can students be trained as researchers with practical abilities in graduate programs of educational administration? It is important, however, that the narrow interpretation of the term "usefulness" might result in limiting the diversity of the research on educational administration.

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This is the summary paper of a presentation in the 8th Japan and Korea Joint Seminar of Educational Administration in Kyungju, Korea, in 2001. Under the common topic, Developing Teacher Policy, I showed the present policy of teacher education in Japan with the background of the change of national society in my presentation as follows: 1. Introduction -- the framework of this report. In the 4th Seminar in Seoul in 1997, Policy of Teacher Education was the topic. After then, both Japan and Korea have been reforming many social fields, including education. In Japan, one educational reform should have been the teacher system and teacher education. I myself like to understand the meaning of the Knowledge Based Society as the new society after change from the Industrial Society. Based on this understanding I present what is the professional development of teachers under the present teacher education reform under social change. 2. Globalization and the change of national society. After the high economic growth age, there was a demand for a new educational system toward knowledge society in Japan. Along this direction, life-long learning society, individualization and social change were the key words of educational reform in the 1980's. Under the globalization of international economy in the 1990's, social reform was focused on decentralization, deregulation, disclosure and participation. Educational reform also has the same four aspects. Though the framework of public education should be changed, the function or role of teachers under the new framework has still been confused. 3. Teacher's professionality in teacher education policy in Japan. In 1998 the teacher licence law was revised again after the former revision in 1988. These two are in the same direction of the understanding of necessity of teacher's ability, especially the practical ability concerning student guidance. The Minister of Education also asked the Central Council for Education to discuss the new teacher licence system. These give us different viewpoints for undertstanding of the teaching profession. 4. New roles and professionality of teachers under the reorganization of the public education system. The change from an industrial society to a knowledge society will make for autonomous relations among people. Public education also will turn its purpose from the formation of national people to the formation of autonomous citizens. This should mean a change of the roles and professionality of teachers. Teachers themselves should be mature people and they should be trained in the long term in an open system.

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Why the emphasis about the improvement in teacher's specialties now? (1) The teaching profession is considered professional in essence. One's capability or talent is not secured only by possession of a teacher's certificate : continuous efforts are required. (2) In order to be adapted for a knowledge-based society and to make a living, lifelong education, including self-training, is demanded. Student's capabilities have especially been nurtured by teachers who possess creative thinking about this knowledge-based society. (3) To secure the equal opportunity of education in which students can demonstrate their capabilities. (4) The diversification of educational contents for student's developmental stage, capabilities, and social needs, etc. (5) The conversion from an old, passive, and uniformed instruction into an active and diversified education based on creative and integrated thinking. (6) In order to play the role of an adviser for learning so that students can acquire knowledge and information themselves by their direct experience. Many arguments for development of the teaching profession are discussed now in Korea : the "teaching profession development synthesis policy" which presents synthetic measures for cultivation, licensure, appointment and training of teachers was announced by the Ministry of Educational Human-Resources in 2001. The following contents should be included for teaching professional development. (1) Extend the training period in colleges and institutes, secure substantial educational contents, and improve training institutes ; establishment of graduate school courses for teacher training, extension of the training period for 6 months through all grades, expansion of institutes and professors for training. (2) Strengthening of evaluation in the training process, and conferring of certificates according to one's capacity not with schooling. (3) Secure independent and autonomous appointment in the region concerned. (4) Active strengthen autonomous teacher training in terms of various training with no restrictions of space and time, not only training led by an organization but school training and self-training. These should be strengthened, run by the teacher educational center managed by the teaching profession organization, and while discussing educational problems cooperatively. In order to secure a superior teacher, the above contents need to be enforced continuously. Particularly expected are teacher's autonomous training and reliance on the surrounding society for specialties in today's knowledge-based society.

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For promoting school reform by organization management, self-examination and evalution of school as a working duty was institutionalized by ministerial ordinance in March 2002. The aim of this school evaluation is focused on the point to "improve the school's education after all." By grasping the intellect of school and community, its positive action for developing and constructive movement is required. This concept tells that the school evaluation concept published in the postwar period in 1951 by the Ministry of Education is still workable today. Under such a concept what is most needed today is thus based on the evaluation results of expectations of stakeholder's opinion and needs, and that school must propose problems itself and consider how to establish short, middle and long terms viewpoints about individual visions of school reform. It will become necessary to examine this under the area of school culture based on school teacher's creativity and collaboration and in some cases support from school councilors and the board of education committee. Further, in the organization management is goal to raise quality, personnel system reform also becomes an important viewpoint. This reform is positioned as government employee system reform and its feature is the development of an ability type personnel evaluation. In other words this is a fair and high acceptance evaluation system which properly evaluates employee's competency and achievements (results). In this case, the aim of the control system is introduced to make each of employees strive for the aim, the accomplishment of work and attaining the organization is targets steadily. The concept of achievement evaluation based on such an aim of control spreads itself not only to corporate and general government employees but also to the world of school teachers. In the Tokyo Metropolis, a type of teacher's personnel evaluation system based on ability development was introduced in April 2000 based on the self-application system and achievement evaluation and both results and lessons have become clear. As one answer, "no evaluation based on concrete facts could be obtained" seen on the administrative side as the evaluator raising questions about the objectivity of the evaluation, while utilizing opinions and viewpoints of children, their parents and teachers. By observing the personnel evaluation of other prefectures it is desirable to apply for the wishes of personnel transfer, decisions of school work details, promotion considerations, and trasfers to leading position like chief leader. For the treatment of salary, there remains the task of a proper reflective system which must be studied in the stabilizing process of the government employee system reform. It is inevitable in Japan from now on that there will be a search for the effectiveness of school evaluation by combining stabilized conditions of a school's self-examination and evaluation and characteristics, results, and lessons born from it. Also, reconsideration must be made from the standpoint of competency results, being introduced at the corporate level for teacher's personnel evaluation. It is Japan's lesson in the early 21st century to study such a desirable personnel evaluation of teachers.

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An important subject for securing superior teachers for educational development, and a rational and proper teacher's salary system, is mediation, whenever a qualified person aims the teaching profession. However, the level of teacher's salaries is low when relatively compared with the past and with other professions. It can be said that the salary system doesn't reflect teacher's special abilities. The purpose of this paper is to uncover new information about the above problems and to propose some improvements required for today's knowledge-based society. The following problems for teacher's salaries are raised in Korea : (1) relative decline of pay level for teachers compared with the past and with other professions, (2) the lack of reality of the teacher salary system ; a small basic wage and many allowance items are included in the salary, (3) salary is considered unattractive to talented persons ; teaching years are more important than capability in setting one's level of salary. The following are searched for as improvement :(1) Social atmosphere in which teachers are respected. (2) Preparation of a salary system by which teachers with a specialty are treated advantageously. (3) Preparation of a salary system that attaches more points to teachers-in-school than to educational administration jobs. The concrete policy for resolving these problems is as follows : (1) Under the present single salary system, since the compensation for acquisition for a research career of a degree cannot be performed, a dual salary system is required. (2) It is necessary to unify many allowance items to a basic wage. (3) A positive policy for the adoption of qualified persons is required. (4) It is necessary to consider making the teacher salary system separate from the integrated system with general government officials. (5) In the future, it is also necessary to examine giving a salary partially based on the results of an organization or an individual. In the 21st century, a society that makes creation of information and knowledge will be necessary. In order to make such a society, one of the requirements will be to emphasize the importance of education and the securing of superior teachers. In order to secure superior teachers, it is necessary to consider improvements in the teacher salary system as well. Although we cannot say for certain, a teacher's influence on society is large, and it is clear that teachers support national development. From this point of view, it is necessary to inquire more carefully about the teacher's salary system in Korea.

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