Community-Based Rehabilitation (CBR) is a social development that focuses on disability issues. It was issued by United Nation agencies such as the World Health Organization and has been implemented in more than 90 countries over the world. However the sustainability of its activities has been an issue since 1980s. CBR's sustainability has been discussed particularly in the realm of the motivation of community volunteers, but it is necessary to analyze the structure of the organization. This study sought to identify the characteristics of an unsustainable organization established by an outside institution and a sustainable organization established by the local community. Semi-structured interviews, participant observation and collection of written documents were conducted in G village in central Java, Indonesia from 2004 to 2006. The CBR committee was established by the C agency in 1994, but CBR activities gradually declined activities after the C agency completed its intervention in 1997 and finally ceased. After that, a new organization was established by the local community which implemented social activities including disability issues. The CBR committee was dismissed because the C agency took over the organizational costs including decision-making and helped unify the members. The self-organized committee was sustainable because it (1) arranged an organizational environment at low organizational cost, (2) mobilized resources because the benefits of the organization were recognized by the community, and (3) established an institution which distributed resources mobilized from the community to the organizational administration.

Exchange rate management has been a hot topic in policy maker and academic circles. The 1997-98 Asian crisis has refocused attention on the exchange rate management of East Asian countries. Most views expressed are critical of the pre-crisis US dollar peg regime, citing it as one cause of the crisis. It is said that this regime caused the appreciation of real effective exchange rates (REERs) and the subsequent loss of competitiveness. This article examines the trend of the REER and its impact on the trade balance during the pre-crisis and post-crisis periods in selected ASEAN countries. The main findings of the study are as follows. First, we found that the REER shows a clear trend of appreciation during the pre-crisis period, whereas it reveals a rather stable movement during the post-crisis period. Second, a Johansen multivariate co-integration analysis verified the existence of a stable long-run correlation between the REER and the trade balance. Third, a simulation analysis showed that the pre-crisis trend of the REER had a clearly negative impact on the trade balance, whereas the post-crisis trend of the REER had a more or less neutral effect on it.

This paper aims to develop an integrated framework that incorporates causal relationships in conservation and development and explore theoretical implications conducive to achieving these dual objectives. Two case studies from the Philippines and Indonesia are used in the analysis.

The proposed framework identifies three types of subjects (among the local actors) who behave in particular ways regarding conservation and development: rational, normalized, and self-aware. Rational subjects behave according to a cost-benefit analysis, normalized subjects follow stipulated rules due to the visibility of regulatory actors, and self-aware subjects take actions based on their own values and interests. It is assumed that rationality is intrinsic to being human, and both normalized and self-aware subjects are developed through the formation process of local organizations and the implementation of devolved forest management.

The paper argues that, under devolved forest management, conservation is materialized thanks to the behaviors of normalized and self-aware subjects, and livelihoods are supported by two different mechanisms: (1) direct and restricted resource use by normalized subjects, and (2) employment opportunities pursued by rational subjects. The latter is provided by local organizations through non-resource based business development. It should be noted that self-aware subjects who recognize devolved management as their own value and interest function provide visibility to normalized subjects. Unlike conventional theory, which assumes the relationship of conservation and development as a trade-off, the paper concludes that the dual objectives of conservation and development can be simultaneously achieved through the application of restricted resource use rules and non-resource based business development. The key to success is the function of local organizations which create normalized and self-aware subjects as well as business opportunities for local actors.

Participatory approaches now seem to be mainstreamed in international developments that are applied to each stage of project. Earlier outsiders controlled and dictated policies and projects designed to develop the disadvantaged, but now the newly developed participatory approaches have replaced them. In other words, disadvantaged people are expected to be not only beneficiaries but also the subject of project activities, such as planning, organizing, and assessing. However, as is already disclosed by ethnographic studies of development projects, assumed beneficiaries never held collective claim as a project assumed; instead it held multiple. A target group is never monolithic, but hybrid while process of a project is never linear, but contingent. People's action in participatory activity is never cooperative, but political.

In this paper, I have laid an effort to scrutinize the effectiveness of “process documentation (PD)” as a monitoring tool to reveal politics in participatory activities. Demonstrating the process of political negotiation on participation and resource distribution, I have explained that the way in which each actor such as fisher, large farmer, local businessman, NGO staffs, and different interest groups compete and ally each other for their different objectives in the project. Thereafter, I have suggested two important possibilities of PD: first of all, I suggest that PD will be a resource for practitioners who are involved in politics to legitimize their experiences and understanding of the political situation in their activities and claim to modify policy model and bridge the gap between model and practice; secondly, I demonstrate importance of PD as “versatile ethnography” of project and suggest possibility of an anthropologist to assume the role to bridge between policy model and practice in development.

The preceding studies analyzed the relationship between environmental performance and economic performance, using developed country's data. The objective of this study is to examine the possibility for applying environmental management theory into developing countries and service sector industry. We use the 145 Thai hotel company data in five regions, Hadyai, Bangkok, Pattaya, Phuket and Chiang Mai. The methodology we use is structure equation modeling. Furthermore, we applied the resource based view of management theory in order to analyze the effect of cooperate strategy and organization on the performance. The data variables of this study are composed by five factors such as external pressure, environmental strategy, organization, environmental performance, economic performance. External pressure represents the company's perception of regulation and claims about environmental protection by government, society and customers. Environmental strategy shows that top leadership and company's priority about environmental protection activity. Organization shows the activity for environmental protection such as the recycling and energy saving. Environmental performance represents the result of the environmental protection activity. Economic performance shows company's economic performance such as room occupancy ratio. We got the all these data through questionnaire survey.

The results show that external pressure has significantly positive effect on the environmental strategy but not organization. In addition, organization doesn't significantly have effect on environmental performance. It shows that environmental activity is not enough to improve their environmental performance. Finally, there is the negative relationship between environmental performance and economic performance.

This study indicates following findings. Firstly, Thai hotel industry company is not active for environmentally action. Secondly, we could not see the compatible relationship between economic performance and environmental performance. Thirdly, the mechanism that external pressure directly promotes the company's environmentally behavior couldn't be proved. Thai hotel industry needs some more time to develop their environmental management capacity.

This paper attempts to present an analytic framework based on the Principal-Agent Model concerning the allocation of authority between a Ministry of Education (Principal) and a School Management Committee (Agent) for designing an optimal decentralized education system in a developing country, utilizing a case study of the Education System in Senegal.

This article analyses a trade-off between a Principal's monitoring effort and an Agent's incentives. In terms of the Contract Theory, the monitoring effort of Ministries, minimizing the information disparity between the Principals and the Agents, discourages the incentives of School Management Committees to improve their school environment. This does not mean, however, there is a need to limit an increase of a Ministry's effort for encouraging an Agent's incentives because the effort level of the Principal (the Ministry) tends to be lower than the necessary level in terms of maximizing the total social benefit. Therefore, it is desirable for the Ministry to exert efforts to create an encouraging environment for promoting the School Management Committee's incentives rather than to strengthen its efforts of monitoring in order to achieve its policy goals. Under these conditions, the Ministry's efforts of monitoring would be justified only if supportive guidance for school activities is given by inspectors to School Management Committees or if the conflicts of interest of the both sides are minimized.

Another finding of this study is that under decentralization, the provision of a school grant would enhance the incentives of the School Management Committee but would have no effect on the effort of the Ministry of Education. In this context, an interesting implication is that the provision of a large amount of school grants beyond the community's capacity may have a negative effect on the allocation of efforts of the School Management Committee between its original activities without a grant and school projects with a grant.

It is widely recognized that stakeholder participation in the planning and implementation processes of environmental development aid is important. However, existing research has not been successful in explaining the basis of the importance of participation with theoretical or practical evidence, verifying the basis, or showing existing challenges. Against this background, this paper aims to demonstrate the meaning and role of stakeholder participation in environmental development aid. In doing so, we show the mechanism of participation in environmental development aid projects by examining theories of existing research and analyzing participatory environmental development aid projects that were implemented in Thailand. A framework to evaluate the performance of environmental development aid projects is shown as well. We analyze environmental development aid projects that prioritized environmental conservation and implemented stakeholder participation approach in some part of the projects (three subprojects of Environmental Fund Project in Thailand). The analysis shows the effects of participation on development aid project aiming for improving the local natural environment. We point out that stakeholder participation in environmental development aid projects has, to some extent, improved performance of these projects. However, the effects were limited as an insitutional basis or financial basis in support of participation was insufficient. Nevertheless, it is expected that environmental governance in regional cities in Thailand that carried out participatory environmental development aid projects would improve in a due course, because effects of participation are not limited to an improvement on the performance of environmental development aid. The experience of participation that residents of these cities have had will become the basis of strengthning an institution of participation and/or the empowerment of local residents.

A/R CDM is to remove Greenhouse Gases by Afforestation or Reforestation projects of CDM, and it can be implemented in countries like LLDCs and AOSIS without large infrastructures. Fukushima showed that A/R CDM cannot be easily implemented due to disadvantages such as much uncertainty and low profitability, although it has many advantages such as income generation from credits and preservation of traditional culture for villagers (Fukushima 2006). It is imperative to solve these problems for the promotion of A/R CDM because it becomes more and more important to achieve the goal of Kyoto Protocol.

One of the reasons for these problems is the isolation of project participants. This paper focuses on the A/R CDM governance and considers how to make and improve the collaborations among these stakeholders and how the A/R CDM governance should be. Through literature study, interview survey in Japan, and field work in Fiji and Madagascar, I analyzed and considered the A/R CDM governance, especially about the present situations of its stakeholders and their networks.

Some research results are as bellow;

1. Project Participants: they think “credit replacement duty” and “specific risks for A/R CDM” are the biggest obstacles.

2. Investors: they concern about CSR as a very important factor to decide to invest or not. Therefore, citizen's CSR request is very effective.

3. Governments of host countries: In many countries, their institutional arrangements to accept A/R CDM projects are insufficient because of their low capacities (the difficulty of A/R CDM rule and the low profitability). So, ODA projects by JICA (the human resource development project, for example) will be effective to improve their capacities.

4. Local Communities: After the pilot reforestation projects, local people both in Fiji and Madagascar show favors and motivations for the participation in the projects. It's important for project participants to make good relations with local communities through continuous trials and dialogues for the project sustainable forest management.

As above, it's very important to improve the A/R CDM governance through making and strengthening the each stakeholder's collaborative relationship for the promotion of A/R CDM.

This article uses data from field surveys to examine the features of major financial institutions in rural Myanmar and discusses how to improve the situation. The data were mainly collected from field interviews with rural households and the staff of financial institutions in Myanmar. Two financial institutions are analyzed in detail, a state-owned agricultural bank (Myanmar Agricultural Development Bank; MADB) and an international NGO which is supported by UNDP (the United Nations Development Program). The study reveals that the general size of most MADB loans in relatively small and that the number of MADB clients declined sharply during 1997 and 2002, while the size of NGO loans and the number of their clients have rapidly increased since 1997. The paper argues, first, the stagnation of MADB performance can be explained by the active regulations and rules related to the bank and the banking sector. It then presents the manner in which the NGO is able to increase loan disbursement despite various constraints. In particular, the results show that it is rational for the NGO to charge slightly higher interest rates to borrowers and increase income from the interest in order to promote loan disbursing against the fund resource constraint. In addition, some implications are discussed detailing ways in which the MADB and the NGO can promote credit supply in rural Myanmar.

When implementing a Japan's official development assistance (ODA) project, it is essential to take a balanced approach between development and conservation. Should problems occur, they need be specified and their causes be clarified to select most appropriate actions.

The Walawe Left Bank Irrigation Project, a yen loan project in Sri Lanka, features human-elephant conflict as an important issue as the project area overlaps with elephant habitats. The project implementing body was the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (development sector), which implemented activities in coordination with the Department of Wildlife Conservation of Sri Lanka (conservation sector) and a local university (research sector) in conducting a series of elephant management activities. A Japanese consulting firm provided assistance, and the project activities included (1) basic ecological survey of wild elephants, (2) implementation of management activities, and (3) monitoring of ecological status of the elephants, as part of the irrigation project. A cross-sector approach was employed, which indicated the importance of the coordinating process in achieving a balance between development and conservation.

The conservation of ecosystems, complex and dynamic as it is, involves volumes of uncertainties and unpredictable factors. It should be noted in the project management that unanticipated events are always possible to occur, and that the results of management actions need to be monitored and fed back to the decision-making process. This is the critical path of adaptive management, and Japan's ODA should be in the position to support the establishment of such system in the recipient countries. As the process may require compromises with the values of the recipient government on ecosystems as well as their policy shift and organizational change, the ODA implementing agency must display logical consistency and strong leadership.

In October 2008, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) became a solely responsible body for the implementation of ODA projects, including technical assistance, grant aid and loan projects. It is expected that JICA operates ODA to support developing countries effectively and functionally by combining those schemes. While the recipient government shall be responsible for implementing environmental mitigation measures for development projects, the ODA framework should flexibly support the government when required.