With the progress of digitalization, the forms and expressions of maps have become more diverse, and the user base has expanded. Because non-experts in cartography have become involved in creating and using maps, we must re-examine the content of map literacy, which has diversified. However, no systematic study of map literacy has been observed, and its definition is ambiguous. The purpose of this study is to analyze past literature and existing teaching materials related to map literacy and present a new framework in light of digitalization.

After defining map literacy as the skill of reading and making maps, we examined the elements and structures of map literacy in light of the impact of digitalization. We identified that required literacy should be considered a combination of information, technology, and media literacies.

To examine the elements and structures of map literacy, we analyzed the contents of three editions of Monmonier’s “How to lie with maps,” a pioneering work in this field. Consequently, although the book covers the three aforementioned literacies, it does not sufficiently capture the digitalization of maps, and it assumes non-expert map users as its intended audience.

Hence, we compared Monmonier’s book with the content of two educational materials published in the 2000s, Geographic Information Science & Technology Body of Knowledge (GIS&T BoK) of University Consortium for Geographic Information Science (UCGIS) and Mapping for a Sustainable World (MSW), published by the United Nations and International Cartographic Association (ICA). The results showed that these materials differed in the three aspects they focused on. Therefore, we need to develop new educational materials for map literacy that cover all the three literacies mentioned above for experts and non-experts.

Hazard maps consist of information about life-threatening natural disasters for the general public, yet they are complex and difficult to read. There is anecdotal and experimental evidence of misreadings as well. However, there has been insufficient empirical examination of the cognitive processes that support hazard map reading. In this paper, we traced the discussion of map literacy—the ability to fully utilize maps—back to the map communication theory. We used the results of research on language understanding, which provide a wealth of research and insight on the cognitive process, to organize the knowledge and cognitive processes that support map literacy. As a result, we identified three cognitive stages for map literacy: (1) reading the symbols accurately based on the legend and basic conventions, (2) reading information that is not depicted on the map, and (3) understanding the limitations of the map information and evaluating its reliability. We then summarized experiments on the use of hazard maps and practices for their use, and examined the knowledge and cognitive processes necessary for full use of hazard maps within the above framework. Based on the discussion, we considered suggestions for creating hazard maps and education for the literacy required for hazard maps.

The work of French cartographer J. Bertin is multifaceted and is now well-recognized in the field of infographics. His discussion of graphical representation is not limited to the pursuit of clarity of content and immediacy of communication in graphical representation, but also includes heuristic and abductive ways of thinking. However, until now, discussions in the field of cartography have mainly focused on the technical aspects of graphical representation and the examination of heuristic and abductive reasoning methods has been insufficient, even though the digitalization of information and artificial intelligence technologies are now in place to support such an environment. Therefore, we review Bertin’s articles and books and attempt to re-evaluate them from the perspective of heuristic and abductive reasoning methods. Although Bertin seems to have proposed a method of visual representation that emphasizes a monosemic system, in fact, methods to stimulate vivid abductive reasoning and discovery through graphics are central to his interests; he should be seen as having pursued theoretical frameworks, such as visual variables, to effectively advance these methods.

Traditional communication theory’s view of the quest for clarity in graphical representation will have to be reconsidered as further extending the potential of the cartography by adding the methods of “exploration, heuristic hypothetical reasoning, and new discoveries. This is also necessary when considering the improvement of map literacy in school and social education.

Historic maps are not merely records of past geospatial information; they also mirror the social, cultural, and technological contexts of their era. Because these maps often feature deliberate distortions, stylized perspectives, and selective details, understanding them requires advanced map literacy—a skill set that includes recognizing cartographic biases, contextual intentions, and the expressive artistry behind historical representations. However, conventional georeferencing methods—which typically apply a single global transformation—can diminish the uniqueness of bird’s-eye-view or pictorial maps by forcibly “correcting” local variances in scale and orientation. This undermines the very features that make historic maps valuable resources for cultivating deeper spatial awareness and interpretation skills.

In response to these challenges, we propose Dynamic Local Georeferencing (DLGR), an approach designed to preserve and highlight mapmakers’ intentions while aligning historic maps with modern coordinate systems. DLGR subdivides a historic map into small triangular regions using a Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN), then applies local affine transformations to each region. This allows for area-specific alignment that more accurately captures each map’s inherent distortions.

To facilitate both practical use and the development of map literacy, we developed a web platform called DLGR Mapper. One of DLGR Mapper’s key features is its ability to maintain the original integrity of historic maps while allowing users to easily identify corresponding points, lines, and areas with modern web maps and other historic maps. By enabling users to interactively place and adjust control points, DLGR Mapper transforms georeferencing into a hands-on exploration of cartographic design choices. Through real-time visualization of how the map reshapes, users gain a critical understanding of how historic maps were drawn, what they sought to emphasize, and why certain distortions were introduced. Case studies of Yoshida Hatsusaburo’s 1936 bird’s-eye-view map of Akita City and multiple historic maps of the former Kakunodate Town and Araya Town illustrate how DLGR Mapper reveals the layered narratives embedded in cartographic artifacts.

By turning georeferencing into an interpretive learning process, DLGR can contribute to fostering heightened map literacy and encouraging deeper engagement with the cultural and historical dimensions of cartography. Furthermore, DLGR can support users in performing spatial reasoning directly on historic maps, enhancing their ability to critically analyze geographic relationships and the historical narratives embedded in cartographic representations. Finally, future developments may involve integrating more flexible transformation models, 3D spatial data, and AI-driven control-point identification to further enhance the tool’s accuracy, usability, and educational impact in advancing historical map literacy.

This study analyzes the current state and characteristics of GIS education in higher education through a content analysis of the 2016 revised edition of the Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge (GIS&T BoK), developed by the University Consortium for Geographic Information Science (UCGIS). Since its initial release in 2006, the GIS&T BoK has undergone significant revisions to address rapid technological changes and new societal needs in the field of geographic information science.

By text-analyzing the keywords and abstracts of the 242 items included in the current GIS&T BoK, several important characteristics of contemporary GIS education were revealed. Firstly, this analysis indicated a heightened emphasis on programming, big data analytics, and Web GIS technologies, reflecting the digital transformation in the GIS field. The domains of “Analysis and Modeling” and “Data Management” have been significantly strengthened, forming the core of modern GIS education. New keywords such as “programming,” “Free and Open-Source Software (FOSS),” and “big data” frequently appear across various domains, indicating their growing importance in the curriculum.

Furthermore, the study found that “Geovisual Analytics” and “Python for GIS” are among the most frequently referenced topics across different educational materials, suggesting an increasing integration between data science and GIS technologies. Additionally, the “GIS&T and Society” domain incorporates emerging topics such as participatory mapping, citizen science, and Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI), highlighting the growing importance of public participation in spatial data collection and analysis. These findings suggest that as GIS has significantly evolved into an interdisciplinary approach beyond geography and cartography, being utilized in diverse fields, the scope that GIS education must cover has expanded.

Several challenges exist in reflecting these international trends and new educational needs in Japanese GIS education. In particular, the development of educational content and materials, as well as the training of instructors who can teach relatively new areas such as programming, advanced analytical methods, ethics, and public participation, which were also suggested by the analysis in this study, are pressing issues. Furthermore, there are curricular challenges in effectively handling the comprehensive body of knowledge presented by the GIS&T BoK within limited educational time and connecting it to students’ gradual acquisition of capabilities.