There seem to be little doubt that referees are indispensable to control games in contemporary football world. On the other hand, with a general survey of the history of football, functions of referees have not necessarily been firm, having been revised repeatedly. The meaning of these reforms, however, has not been given enough consideration by researchers. This article, thus, explores the historical transition of football officials, especially focusing on the pattern of decision-making, and the concept of fairness reflected in change to the system. Before the codification of football rules, the existence of officials had rarely been confirmed, especially in historical documents. In addition, evidence also indicates that officials were rather indifferent observers than decision-makers. This principle did not vary markedly after the formation of football laws at modern public schools, which means that players could take initiative on decision-makings as interested parties. Meanwhile, a main role of officials had been the arbitration of players' discussion even in the 1860s, when the Football Association advanced a unification of local rules. This custom, however, was gradually altered in the 1880s. An increase in spectators and the development of players' skills, following the professionalisation of football, required the reform of the existing umpire system. As a result the Football Association revised the regulations and established the referee system in 1891, which has been the basis of present system ever since. From that time, referees could become adjudicators on pitches. The reinforcement of referees' power, nevertheless, might not definitely demonstrate that the norm of fairness had progressed. The absence of officials or the limited power of referees may not automatically signify lack of discipline. For, particularly at public schools, negotiations and judgments of players (students) were regarded as crucially significant forming the basis of the ideal of self-discipline, which led to the umpire system. In the mean-time, referees' strict control could be a subject of severe criticism. Although the emergence of vast audiences encouraged the introduction of objective decisions of neutral referees, amateur had expressed fierce opposition to reformation of the system. Accordingly, the Football Association had to confront a wide range of difficulties in relation to the new referee regime and these have continued even to present. It can be generally concluded that the history of football officials is the transition of the referee's role from arbitrator to adjudicator. This alteration, however, does not simply designate the straight progress of fairness in the football world. Even after the establishment of the referee system, traditional concepts of self-discipline have had considerable influence and prevented further reforms. In brief, it can be claimed that such a conflict between 'negotiation/arbitration' and 'adjudication' is of critical importance in history of football officials.

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The important point concerning the historical study of mind-body oneness during Asia and Pacific War in Japan is to specify the process how the mind-body oneness logically related suicide attacks in japanese army and navy. The purpose of this study is to consider the problem of mind and body during Asia and Pacific War in Japan. I focus on Kikuo Mihashi (1888-1969), a very famous scientist of physical education, and declared "Shinshinichinyo" which is the theory of mind-body oneness from Buddhism. This study used the magazine, Shintaiiku, was published from 1932 to 1944 by Mihashi's physical education laboratory established in 1930. The results of the analysis are summarized as follows. It was expression of the mind through the body that Mihashi considered one of the most important idea in his Shinshinichinyo. However he found that there was a limit to his Shinshinichinyo expressing mind, and also explained that human can not accomplish an expression of high quality through the body. How did he solve such problems? First, he suggested the following the two concepts about human body to solve the limit to his Shinshinichinyo expressing mind: One of the two concepts was expression of the mind, and the other was expression of the life. Second, he contrived the new intervention of idea that separating mind and body. By way of conclusion, it seems appropriate to remark that, although his original idea of mind-body oneness, Shinshinichinyo expressing mind, gave a logical foundation of suicide attacks, his intervention of idea that separating mind and body was not compatible with suicide attacks.

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There are three traditional accounts as to where Kappa, one of the legendary Japanese folk creatures comes from. From a folkloristics perspective, however, Kunio Yanagita claimed it was a degraded form of a water god. Supposing that claim is true, degradation will be the origin. There is, however, no mention of it in those accounts. In Nihon Shoki, the oldest official chronicle of Japan, there are two mentions of Nomino-sukune. These mentions are part of the "Emperor Suinin Jyou," a collection of events during the reign of Emperor Suinin; one is about the origin of sumo and the other is about the origin of haniwa, earthenware figures. In the early eighth century, "Sumaino-sechie" one of the Imperial Court ceremonies was set on the seventh day of the seventh month and sumo was held on the same day along with the Star Festival. According to the chronicle, "a sumo match between Nomino-sukune and Taimano-kehaya," took place on the seventh day of the seventh month in the seventh year of Emperor Suinin's reign. This intentional setting shows a clear reason for having "Sumaino-sechie" on the seventh day of the seventh month and having a poem-composing ceremony for the Star Festival and sumo on the same day. There must have been some sound reasons, but no documents showing this have not been found. This paper starts examining the intention by assuming that the prototype of the Star Festival was disgrace. The prototype of the Star Festival is the act of sacrificing animals and humans to the water god. In the Jindaiki section of Nihon Shoki. there are some evil acts by Susanoo (a god) mentioned. One of them was the act of throwing a skinned cow into a place where weaving was in process and thus hurt a weaving girl. It can be said that the account was described with the prototype of the Star Festival in mind. The evil acts by Susanoo are the origin of amatsu-tsumi or sin and are regarded as a disgrace, something to be purified. Thus, the prototype of the Star Festival was set as a disgrace. A disgrace means events or acts which are not in compliance with social order and that order is set by the ones in power. In due course, those events or acts will become something that must be purified. This paper lists the outlying regions that don't obey the ruler and the insurrection within the government as these examples. Designating the acts of disgrace gives justification to ruling that region and epuration of the insurrection, solidifying the authenticity of power. The existence of the poem-composing ceremony for the Star Festival on the seventh day of the seventh month can be confirmed by "Manyo-shyu" the oldest collection of poems. Also, the recognition of the prototype of the Star Festival can be confirmed by the fact that it was described as a motif of evil acts by Susanoo. That is, sacrificing animals and humans, which are ceremonies for a water god, become disgraceful. The origin of a water god degrading into Kappa is found here. Originally, "Sumaino-sechie" has been thought to have started as "the rite for governing outlying regions." This paper, however, regards it as a disgrace from the correlations between the beginning of "Sumaino-sechie" and "a sumo match between Nomino-sukune and Taimano-kehaya." If the origin of "Sumaino-sechie" is regarded as disgrace, it can be viewed as "the rite to remain in power against insurrection within the government" in addition to the traditional assumption as "the rite to subject the outlying region." It can be said that the intention for setting the sumo match on the seventh day of the seventh month was to show legitimacy for governing the outlying region.

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