The residue of cottonseed oil extraction industry popularly known as cottonseed meal (CSM) is a fairly good source of protein (222.0 to 560.2gkg^-1) and metabolizable energy (7.4 to 11.99MJkg^-1). The use of CSM in poultry diet is limited due to the presence of gossypol, cyclopropenoid fatty acids (CPFA), high fibre and poor protein quality. The most critical amino acid in CSM is lysine. During the oil extraction from cotton- seeds, a portion of free gossypol (FG) binds with the epsilon amino group of lysine, thereby reducing the availability of lysine to the chicken. The concentration of nutrients, FG, CPFA in CSM depends on the variety of cultivars, methods of oil extraction, proportion of kernel to husk, lint and seed coat. The concentration of FG in various varieties of CSM ranges from 200 and 5300mgkg^-1. In glandless variety, the FG concentration is less (>130mgkg^-1). Gossypol inhibits the activity of pepsin and trypsin in gastro-intestinal tract, thereby reducing the digestibility of protein. The reported toxic effects of gossypol are growth depression, lameness, decreased egg size and hatchability. Gossypol and CPFA also deteriorates the internal egg quality by causing yolk mottling and pinkish discoloration of albumen, respectively. The tolerance levels of FG in birds vary widely depending on the age and strain of birds, protein content and quality, duration of feeding, presence of minerals especially the iron content in the diet. The tolerance of FG in chicks varies widely (90 to 1000mgkg^-1 diets), however performance of layer chicks could be affected even at a lower FG intake of 2.02mg day^-1 bird^-1. Though, growth was not affected in broilers at FG concentration in diet below 150mgkg^-1, feed efficiency was reduced at lower levels i.e. 60-100mgkg^-1. The depression in egg production in layers fed diets containing more than 100mgkg^-1 was mainly due to lowered feed intake. The egg weight and egg quality was not affected at FG levels upto 200mgkg^-1 diet. Iron treatment (4 : 1; Fe : FG) proved to be effective in alleviating the negative effects on egg quality, but could not alleviate the depression in laying performance. Lysine supplementation to CSM containing diets is also effective in counteracting the ill effects of FG in chicken, especially chicks and broilers. Other processing methods like solid substrate fermentation, production of glandless cotton seed and use of organic solvents were though effective in improving the nutritive value of CSM and reducing the FG content in CSM, these methods are of little practical relevance and uneconomical. Production of glandless variety of cottonseed through genetic modification (Bacillus thuringiensis cotton) is one of the recent trends of reducing the FG content. Some other methods like pelleting, extrusion, cooking and Ca (OH)₂ treatment of CSM could be tried for improving the feeding value of CSM in poultry.

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The Nagoya breed is a popular Japanese native chicken, a dual-purpose breed raised for eggs and meat. We used 24 microsatellite markers were employed to analyze the diversity and differentiation of the four strains (NG1-4) of the Nagoya breed established at the Aichi-ken Agricultural Research Center. The proportion of polymorphic loci (P_poly) was 0.83. The mean number of alleles per locus ranged from 2.583 to 3.125. The mean expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.341 to 0.395. The index of random mating (F_is) per population ranged from 0.054 to 0.158. Significant population differentiation was detected among all strain pairs. These data suggest that the Nagoya breed has low genetic diversity and the four strains are highly differentiated. The genetic information in the current study will contribute to effective breeding and efficient conservation of the Nagoya breed.

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The ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domestica) were domesticated from Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). While the ducks bred in Japan and European countries are supposed to originate from the ducks in China and Southeast Asian countries, respectively, the molecular phylogeny of these ducks has not been studied. We herein showed the phylogenetic relationship from the nucleotide sequences within the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome b gene of 18 breed ducks. In this phylogenetic relationship, Japanese and Chinese ducks were found to belong to the same clade distinct from the clade containing European and Southeast Asian ducks. This finding demonstrates the heretofore supposed fact that domesticated ducks in China and Southeast Asian countries have been distributed to Japan and European countries, respectively. In addition, this phylogenetic tree revealed that the genetic constitution of Southeast Asian ducks is distinctly different from that of Northeast Asian ducks.

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In a typical maintenance plan of closed poultry lines, breeding individuals are divided into several groups each with one male and several females. The groups are put into different breeding cages and mating within cages is carried out to produce their replacements. To reduce the inbreeding rate or increase the effective population size in this plan, following four selection and mating systems were considered. In the first system (RS-RM), parents of the next generation are randomly selected from the progeny pooled over cages, and breeding groups are re-established by randomly dividing the selected progeny. In the second system (WS-RM), selection is carried out within progeny from each cage, and breeding groups of next generation are re-established in the same way as RS-RM. In the third system (WS-RGM), after the within-cage selection as in WS-RM, the females selected from same cage and a randomly selected male over cages are formed a breeding group of the next generation. The final system (WS-NGM) is similar to WS-RGM, but in the assignment of selected males, sib-mating is completely avoided. These systems were compared in terms of the inbreeding coefficient and the effective population size. Compared to RS-RM, the three systems with within-cage selection (WS-RM, WS-RGM and WS-NGM) effectively reduced the inbreeding coefficient in the initial generations. Among the three systems, WS-NGM gave the lowest initial inbreeding coefficient. Although the largest effective population size was attained under WS-RGM, many generations were required for WS-RGM to give a lower inbreeding coefficient than WS-NGM. It was concluded that WS-NGM is a practically recommended system.

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This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a molt diet on molt induction and the post-molt performance of laying hens. White Leghorn hens (age, 62wk) were randomly divided into three groups (two experimental, one control). After a 4-wk preliminary period, one group (control) was continuously fed a corn-soybean-based layer ration ad libitum. Molting was induced in the other groups by starvation (MS) or with feed (MF). In the MS group, the feed was withdrawn for 2wk; this was followed by feeding of a layer ration on alternate days for 1wk and then ad libitum. The MF group was fed ad libitum a low-protein and low-energy diet based on corn, wheat bran, and corn gluten feed for 4wk; this was followed by ad libitum feeding of a layer ration. Egg production, egg quality, and feed intakes were measured throughout the experimental period; ovary and oviduct weights and heterophil: lymphocyte (H: L) ratios were measured during molting. During molting, the feed intake in the MF group was lower than that of the control; body weights of the molted groups were significantly reduced. Additionally, the MS group totally ceased egg production within 8 d; in the MF group, egg production decreased to 3.8% by d 10. On d 10 of molting, the H : L ratio of the MF group was lower than that of the MS group. On d 14, the ovaries and oviducts of the molted groups were distinctly lighter than those of the control. Throughout the post-molt period, egg production and egg shell thickness of the molted groups improved; but there were no significant differences. Additionally, the eggs of the MF group were heavier than those of the MS and control groups. This study suggests that feeding of a low-protein and low-energy diet effectively induces molting and increases post-molt production.

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The influence of varying leucine and fetal calf serum (FCS) concentrations in the culture medium on protein synthesis and degradation of chicken embryo myoblasts was examined. Medium199 contained 0, 1, 2, 5 or 10% FCS and 457 (original concentration of leucine in Medium 199), 2287 or 4574μmol leucine/l. Protein synthesis was measured by incorporation of ³H-phenylalanine. Protein degradation was measured by release of ³H-phenylalanine once incorporated into myoblasts. There was an interaction between leucine and FCS concentrations on muscle protein synthesis. When FCS was not included in the medium, myoblast protein synthesis was increased with an increment of leucine concentration. At more than 5% of FCS, myoblast protein synthesis decreased by elevating leucine levels in the medium. Response surface of protein synthesis to varying leucine and FCS concentrations was calculated as follows: Protein synthesis (dpm)=1317.5+495.7X-29.3X²+40.9Y-19.9XY+1.4X²Y, where X is FCS concentration (%), and Y is leucine concentration (×457.4μmol/l). FCS concentration not interacting with the effect of varying leucine concentrations on protein synthesis was calculated to be 2.49%. No interaction between leucine and FCS concentrations on muscle protein degradation was observed. The effects of varying FCS and leucine levels on myoblast protein degradation showed quadratic response. When FCS increased from 0 to 7.25%, protein degradation dramatically decreased. However, when FCS increased from 7.25 to 10%, protein degradation tended to increase. The most effective leucine concentration suppressing protein degradation was calculated to be 2751μmol/l. Thus, the influence of leucine on protein metabolism of chicken embryo myoblasts is modulated by varying serum concentrations in the medium.

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The objective of this study was to determine the effect of differently processed mucuna (Mucuna pruriens var utilis) and kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) on the performance, nutrient utilization and weight of internal organs of broiler chickens. The legumes were processed by three different methods viz. aqueous heating, toasting and dehulling. A total of 315 as hatched day old broiler chicks (Anak strain) were used for the experiment. There were seven dietary treatment groups of 45 birds each and three replicates of 15 birds each. Processed mucuna and kidney bean meals were used to replace 50% protein supplied by soybean meal in the control diet. Data for average daily feed intake (ADFI) revealed no differences for the effect of processing methods. However, average daily gain (ADG) was influenced by dietary treatments (P<0.05). ADG in birds fed either aqueous heated kidney bean (AHKB) or mucuna bean meals (AHMM) was significantly (P<0.05) higher than those fed toasted and dehulled meals. Feed conversion efficiency (FCE) followed the same trend as ADG. Apparent protein digestibility (APD) was affected by different processing techniques. Minimum APD was observed in birds fed either dehulled kidney bean (DKB) or dehulled mucuna meal (DMM). Apparent metabolizable energy corrected for nitrogen (AME_n) was not affected by the dietary treatments (P<0.05). The relative weights of the pancreas were significantly (p<0.05) increased in fed dehulled meal while weights of the liver were significantly (p<0.05) reduced in the same group of birds. The structural alterations were attributed to high concentration of residual trypsin inhibitors in dehulled meals. In conclusion, AHKB and AHMM can be used to replace 50% protein supplied by soybean meal in broiler starter and finisher diets without any adverse effect on the performance and the intestinal organs.

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We examined gizzard morphology and diet particle size reduction in broiler chickens fed a wheat-based diet that was offered in either a mash or a pelleted form. The pelleted diet had a lower proportion of coarse particles on wet sieving. Birds fed the mash diet had a significantly larger gizzard mass per unit body mass. The gizzards of all birds increased uniformly in size, there being no significant change either in the ratio of content to empty mass or in the ratio of gizzard length to breadth with diet. Thus, there was no tendency for coarse particles to accumulate in the gizzards of bird fed the mash diet. The relative proportion of all classes of particles below 0.500mm was increased and the relative proportion of all particle classes above 0.500mm was reduced in birds regardless of feed form. The relative increase of particles in all classes below 0.500mm was greater in birds fed mash feed. However, digesta exiting the gizzard of birds fed mash diet contained significantly greater amounts of particles of size classes 1mm and greater than digesta of those fed the pelleted diet. Thus, whilst the gizzard operates to generally reduce particle sizes above 0.500mm and increase those below this size, this reduction is not uniform and likely to be a probabilistic function as it is in the human mouth.

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Marked growth retardation has been well documented in thyroidectomized chickens. However, in these chickens, fatty liver and enlarged deposits of abdominal fatty tissue are also induced. The aim of the present study was to identify proteins that induce the fatty livers of thyroidectomized chickens. Heat stable proteins were selected for ease of analysis. Four protein bands were detected by SDS-PAGE with CBB staining after incubation at 70°C for 10min. The degree of CBB staining suggested that the expression of the 25-, 40- and 45-kDa proteins increased, whereas that of the 35-kDa protein decreased, in the fatty livers of thyroidectomized chickens. Partial N-terminal amino acid sequences were determined from the random peptides of these four proteins. Partial amino acid sequencing suggested that the 35-kDa protein was the lactate dehydrogenase B (LDHB, EC 1.1.1.27) subunit, which is primarily composed of LDH-1 isozyme, although this subunit is not abundant in mammal livers. Further analysis revealed that this 35-kDa protein acts as a dehydrogenase, with lactic acid as the substrate. It was thus identified as the LDHB subunit. The 40-kDa protein was identified as alcohol dehydrogenase 1 (ADH1, EC 1.1.1.1), and the 45-kDa protein as betaine homocysteine methyltransferase (BHMT, EC 2.1.1.5), an enzyme in the homocysteine cycle. The 25-kDa protein appeared to be a novel protein. These findings suggest that the metabolic pathway from pyruvic acid to ethanol is accelerated in the fatty livers of thyroidectomized chickens.

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Our goal was to determine whether there is any correlation between the mRNA expressions of transforming growth factor β (TGFβ)-isoforms/their receptors and the fertility in chicken sperm stored in vitro for different times. The semen collected from White Leghorn roosters was divided into diluted (in Lake's solution) and undiluted groups, and stored for 0, 24, 48 and 72h at 37°C to observe sperm viability, fertility of the eggs after artificial insemination (AI) and mRNA expressions of TGFβs and TGFβ receptors (TβRs) in the sperm. Sperm viability was assessed using propidium iodide (PI) and egg fertility was observed by judging the development of embryo. The mRNA expressions of three types of TGFβ-isoforms (β2, β3 and β4) and three types of their receptors (TβR1, TβR2 and TβR3) in both the diluted and undiluted sperm were examined by semi-quantitative RT-PCR. Sperm viability in diluted semen declined slowly from 97% to 73% (75% declines against the initial value), whereas fertility was declined from 88% to 23% (26% declines against the initial value) by 72h of sperm storage. The mRNA expressions of sperm TGFβs and TβRs were also declined gradually during the storage of sperm. Correlation and regression analysis also showed a positive correlation between the sperm TGFβs/TβRs and fertility. In undiluted semen, egg fertility and the expressions of TGFβs/TβRs became negligible by 24h of storage, although 29% sperm were alive. These results suggest that expression of TGFβs and TβRs by sperm is one of the factors responsible in fertility, probably by maintaining the sperm survivability in the hen oviduct.

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A biological experiment was conducted to study the effect of panchagavya and Andrographis paniculata on haematological, serum biochemical parameters and immune status of broilers with one hundred and eighty commercial, straight run day-old broiler chicks. The chicks were fed basal diet (T₁), basal diet with virginiamycin-20mg/kg (T₂), basal diet with panchagavya-7.5g/kg (T₃), basal diet with A. paniculata-2.0g/kg (T₄) probiotics-0.5g/kg (T₅) and basal diet with mannanoligosaccharide (MOS)-2.0g/kg (T₆) from 1 to 28 days of starting period and 0.5g/kg from 29 to 42 days finishing period were maintained for 6 weeks period. The results revealed that the haematological parameters did not vary significantly between treatment groups. The serum total cholesterol level was lower (P<0.01) in T₃ and T₅ than virginiamycin and control. The HDL cholesterol was higher (P<0.05) in T₅. The serum total protein, albumin, globulin and glucose values were not differed significantly between treatment groups. The serum AST and ALT levels were lower (P<0.01) in A. paniculata and panchagavya groups compared to other groups. The serum ALP was (P<0.05) lower in T₄. Higher HA titre against SRBC (P<0.01), HI titre against NDV (P<0.05) and QAGPT titre against IBDV were observed in T₃, T₄ and T₅, which indicating immunomodulatory effect of panchagavya and A. paniculata in broilers.

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The endogenous tetrapeptides endomorphin-1 and -2 are potent, selective μ-opioid receptor agonists in mammals. The present study was done to elucidate whether central injection of endomorphins enhances feeding behavior in chicks, and to investigate the interaction with the μ₁-opioid receptor. We found that the intracerebroventricular injection of endomorphin-2 (10-30nmol) significantly stimulated food intake in neonatal chicks during the 60-min period postinjection. However, the same doses of endomorphin-1 injected with ICV had no significant effects on feeding behavior. The orexigenic effect of endomorphin-2 was significantly attenuated by the μ₁-opioid receptor antagonist naloxonazine. These results indicate that the administration of endomorphin-2, but not endomorphin-1, into the chick brain produces the orexigenic effect through the μ₁-opioid receptor.

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A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primer set for a chicken pkci gene on the Z-chromosome, chPKCI, amplified a 329 bp fragment of genomic DNA in chickens but not quail. Likewise, a PCR primer set for the quail pkci gene on the Z-chromosome, quPKCI, amplified a 95 bp fragment of genomic DNA in quail but not chickens. These chicken and quail primers validly identified chicken-quail hybrids derived from Z-chromosome carrying sperm of chicken and the hybrid derived from Z-chromosome carrying oocyte of quail, respectively.

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This experiment was conducted to study the preference of broiler chicks for colored feed (white, yellow, orange, red and green) in various lighting colors (yellow, orange, red and green) under dim (1.5lx), medium (9lx) and high (65lx) light intensities at 7, 14 and 21 days of age. The number of active (standing or walking) chicks, the number of droppings in each light color zone, and the weight of each colored feed as well as accumulated feed consumed were recorded. The proportion of the birds which preferred to walk or stay in green light zone was significantly greater (by approximately 3 folds) than the birds on other colored light zones (P<0.01). The number of droppings was significantly greater on green light zone for pooled data over age and light intensity (P<0.05). The consumption of green feed was significantly differed for various light colored light zones (P<0.05). The feed consumption for any feed color was generally higher (except for orange feed) on green light zone. The mean green feed consumption was significantly higher on green floor zone compared to orange feed. It was concluded that the broiler chicks prefer green lighting as well as green feed over orange, yellow, red lights and white, orange, yellow and red feeds, respectively. These results may be beneficial with respect to managerial application especially for crucial few weeks of broiler rearing period.

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