What we should study is affected by the calling of time and society, and is not completely unrelated to political conditions and social policies. For example, although the studies on developmental disorders or on stress have been popular for a long time, those are not only symptomatic therapies but they also reproduce the reality. Also, the eagerness to adhere to the scientific approaches in the psychology world drives us in those studies using micro- or high-tech machines or highly advanced statistics. As a result, the situation of "psychology without society" may be produced. In this special issue, we would like to criticize the mainstream psychologies and discuss how psychology faces the real contemporary society from the view point of critical, feminist, and qualitative psychology.

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The paper reviews societal investments in particular constructions of children and childhood, drawing on examples from the British context that mark the emergence of child psychology from the 1870s onwards. One lesson from this historical inquiry is that apparently unprecedented current (21st century) concerns around children (in particular, in relation to education, sexuality and violence) in fact were present in the late nineteenth century. A second key issue is that this period marks the consolidation of the model of the heteropatriarchal nuclear family which in turn was mobilised to sanction colonial expansion. A critical psychological lens is applied focusing on the relations between gender and childhood positions as structured in early psychological models, and as reflecting and contributing to societal practices. The paper concludes by reflecting upon and evaluating the conceptual and methodological frameworks involved and the place of critical psychology in relation to social policy and practice.

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Since Meiji Period, Japan followed the Western Nations towards modernization. At the same time, Japan promoted imperialism and patriarchy. The repeated wars resulted in setting a high value on 'motherhood'. During the WWII, the state-regulated prostitution since Edo period was expanded as 'comfort women system' that was enslaved prostitution in reality. Due to increase of orphans and street children, the Child Welfare Act was issued in 1947. On the other hand, the notion of Hospitalism was brought in and the 'three-year-old myth' was spread out. Although Japanese society experienced rapid industrialization, "Oil Shock" occurred in 1973. As the high economic growth began to fade, the social problems began to surface. Those problems include 'shinju' committing suicide - with her child/children, 'coin-locker baby' - mother abandoning her child/children, as well as children's domestic violence against parents, and rapid increase of school children resisting going to school. Those social problems were considered as mal-function of motherhood and a book called 'Bogenbyo (the illness caused by mothers)' became a best-seller. Decreasing birthrate and aging population became serious problems; and after 1990's, policies concerning mothers raising children were legislated one after another. In 2007, 'work, life, and balance charter' was laid down; however, the charter only created additional social problems as increase of temporary jobs and job market becoming gender oriented. Polarization between have and have not increased; single mothers, children and older single women have been reduced to poverty. In 1970's, women's liberation movement - called 'women's lib' - took place. In 1980's, women's study became a popular subject among scholars. Equal Employment Opportunity Law was issued in 1985 and Basic Act for Gender-Equal Society was issued in 1999. In response, there was a backlash against the movement, namely, the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem was enacted in 1999, and in 2000's, the attacks against sex education and gender free education became fierce. Therefore, it is critical to be aware of the nature of psychology which always contains risks to contribute to nationalism. Since the bubble economy collapsed and when Great Hanshin earthquake happened in 1995, the 'age of mind' has arrived. The cultural ministry distributed 'kokoro no nohto (notebook of mind)' to every grade schoolers. In 2006, Basic Act on Education was revised. After child abuse prevention law was issued in 2000, among the measures taken against abuse, the reinforced was not the responsibility of the nation and the states for the next generation but the power of the states for the surveillance and supervision of the parents. In 2005, the Act on Support for Persons with Developmental Disabilities was enacted and the Special Needs Education began. Due to the fact that the range of target students was expanded, the range of the neurotypicals diminished; in result, the system contributed to standardization and control. While cognitive and neuroscience has been developed rapidly, neuro-technologies are in peril of misuse or worse perversion. Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami in 2011 exposed the sore spots of Japanese social systems. Although, the situations where victims are left with cannot be resolved by pathology; the understanding of the political and social situations ought to be reflected onto academic psychological studies. When we look back, psychological examinations have been developed to select the most capable soldiers among youths and the psychological knowledge has been employed for the mind controls and the war tactics. To avoid the risks of misuse of psychology, as Parker suggested, reflectivity is the key, that is to say,

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The Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami disaster (March 11, 2011) caused enormous damage to Japanese society, and provoked critical questions about modern psychology. Existing cognitive psychological research, which leans on the personal information processing model, made a relatively small contribution to disaster relief and mental care. In comparison, non-cognitive psychological approaches, such as the discursive approach, longitudinal practice, and irrational but interactional stances, played major aid roles in the disaster-stricken area. (1) Regarding disaster prevention, existing cognitive psychology holds that the rational thinking of normal adults is important in emergency situations. Nevertheless, elementary school children were able to play important roles when the disaster occurred. In Kamaishi, school children who had studied disasters took prompt evacuation activity and encouraged their parents and neighbors to escape when the huge tsunami occurred. We were made aware of the abilities of children and the capacities of relatively weak individuals in emergency situations. (2) After the Great Hanshin Earthquake (January 17, 1995), disaster relief volunteers became active in Japan, and the institutionalization and regulation of disaster relief volunteers advanced. Government offices wanted to make efficient, effective use of manpower. However, local government offices were severely damaged during the 2011 disaster and they could not control the volunteers efficiently. Many volunteers participated in disaster-relief activities spontaneously, without official control. The irrational behavior and wastefulness of volunteers were important factors in the emergency situation. (3) "Mental care (kokoro-no-care)" became a popular phrase during the Great Hanshin Earthquake in 1995. During the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011, many organizations and therapists descended on the disaster-stricken area and visited shelters; some therapists forced unwanted questionnaires on the disaster sufferers. Some disaster sufferers reported that they did not want or need mental care. Alternatively, physical interactions, such as foot bathing (ashi-yu) were desired. In some cases, the victims of past disasters, such as Hanshin in 1995 and Chuetsu in 2004, acted as caregivers in the disaster-stricken area. The interaction of different disaster sufferers, which was called "a relay of disaster-stricken areas", had advantageous effects on mental care. These three examples show the importance of a longitudinal discursive approach and the irrational but interactional physical approach. The psychological meaning of disasters and the need to change modern psychology are also discussed.

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This paper reviews key features of 'critical psychology' concerning the power psychological knowledge has over other forms of explanation in contemporary culture, and shows their relevance to contributions by Burman, Muramoto and Yatsuzuka. The role of psychoanalysis in relation to qualitative research in psychology historically and currently is emphasised in the course of this commentary. I focus on the way that concepts from Lacanian psychoanalysis - in particular, Lacan's account of 'Symbolic', 'Imaginary' and 'Real' domains of human experience - can enrich a critical psychological account.

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Psychology is a science! This is one of those "truths" that undergraduate psychology students are taught on the first day of their introductory classes. The word, "science", often gives the impression of being objective, value free, and having no political bias. However, as Erica Burman critically stated, psychology has always involved social practice, and intentionally, or unintentionally has favored a socially dominant group. Although I had once completely agreed with her, since started working as an academic advisor for Ph. D. candidates struggling to get their papers published and find faculty positions, I have been slightly uncomfortable with this feminist-critical standpoint. Should each psychologist be allowed to conduct research only after the whole process from the research question to methodology, as well as unexpected consequences, both ethical and political, have been taken into consideration? This is a tough question for me, as well as for many mainstream psychologists. As a critical and feminist psychologist, I would like to suggest that psychologists, especially social psychologists--as I am one of them--should realize that our research is situated in one particular society at one particular historical period, which could in turn lead us to the idea that doing psychological research is actually a social practice. As for psychology students, most of whom may eventually become mainstream psychologists, I suggest that airing social concern have to be conducted only in certain situations, for example, through lectures about "the history of Japanese psychology," "psychologists at war" and "Tsunami victims as research subjects," conducted within the framework of existing classes.

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This paper examines how psychology relates to society and social practices. Theoretical psychology and critical psychology have investigated the influence of both of internal and external factors on psychological knowledge such as the theories on personality, psychological testing and psycho-therapies. Generally speaking, Japanese psychologists have tended to avoid social practices concerning the social injustice and social inequality of those who suffer from severe life threatening. The author suggests psychological practices that aim to contribute to the welfare of people and to promote research on the mind with a critical perspective are much more needed in contemporary Japanese society where psychologization is rapidly progressing. This paper also argues for the New History of Psychology to deconstruct and reconstruct mainstream psychology, discourse analysis as a significant methodology to research the subjectivity of people living in 'the world after Fukushima', and the importance of the ethics of psychologists in the controversy on psychological torture inflicted in the war on the terror after 9.11.

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