The purpose of this paper is to explore a cognitive psychological approach to study expertise and the acquisition of practical intelligence or tacit knowledge by using results of several studies conducted by the author and other researchers. Surveys were conducted to find differences between middle managers and ordinary workers, as well as potential lower managers and ordinary lower managers as rated by the personnel manager. The results indicate that managerial tacit knowledge (e. g., managing self, others and tasks) and its acquisition involve years of managing experience, attitude to learn from experience (e. g., flexibility, challenge), critical thinking attitude, analogical reasoning by drawing from past experiences, reflection of experiences, and transformation between tacit and explicit knowledge in the workplace. Lastly, the paper discusses how an interaction between individual learning and organizational learning promotes the acquisition of practical intelligence to develop expertise of lower and middle managers.

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The purpose of this paper is to clarify the effects of workplace factors on learning behaviors. In particular, the paper examines the effects of information openness and workplace cohesiveness on both individual and organizational learning behavior as well as explores the relationships between individual learning behavior and organizational learning behavior. Although many studies on organizational learning have been conducted, only a few have focused on learning behavior. Furthermore, some theoretical studies have pointed out the importance of the relationships between individual and organizational learning behavior. However, few studies clarify the factors that strengthen the relationship between two types of learning behavior.
The results of this paper are the following: Two workplace factors─ informational openness and workplace cohesiveness─ did not affect both individual and organizational learning behavior directly; and yet, individuals with learning behavior promote the organizational learning behavior, by sharing information and knowledge with their colleagues.

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Recently, the research field of organizational　theory has witnessed an increased number of studies　focusing on learning in workplace (i. e., learning that　occurs at a group level). There has been a rise in the　number of empirical studies elucidating the learning　that takes place through interactions between workers　and their superiors in a workplace, in particular.　Viewing this research trend, this study aims to discuss　a series of studies on learning in workplaces, by citing　and referring to prior researches that the author has　previously conducted.

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The concept of learning had been treated as S-R associations in behavior psychology, but is radically changed by the revolutionary movements of cognitive psychology/cognitive science. However, cognitivists focused exclusively on information-processing in brains, have not paid enough attention to the outer world, such as environment, society and culture. The second revolution, with a focus on the situatedness of cognition, led a new view, which is called “situated learning.” The “situatedness” requires participation in some community practices. In order to participate in a community, “second-person engagement” is necesnecessary. Recent movements toward workshops, performances and emotive/affective interactions seem to indicate this direction of changes.

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Today, an accelerated paradigm shift has been seen in the form of human activities, from systems rooted in mass production to those based on interorganizational collaboration, partnerships and networking across cultural, organizational and occupational boundaries. Based on the framework of culturalhistorical activity theory and its model of expansive learning, this article examines a new form of learning within organizations that crosses the boundaries of time, space and hierarchical levels. In particular, this article illuminates the emergence of expansive learning and agency formation through knotworking, which are flexible, distributed and partially improvised forms of collaborative actions and synergies. The article draws upon analyses of cases in hybrid-learning activities, involving children, teachers and various actors outside schools. The future-oriented, transformational power of agency demonstrated in these hybrid-learning activities is effectively distributed through knotworking, thereby enabling shift beyond schools, linking of activity systems, involvement in larger sets of activities, development of connections and improvement of people’s lives.

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This paper focuses on differences between intergroup dynamics and intra-group dynamics in a research and development organization. Inter-group communication involves knowledge transfer between different groups, while intra-group communication deals with knowledge sharing within same groups. The main finding of this study is that major differences in factors exist to improve or impede knowledge transfer among engineers between intra-group communication and inter-group communication. The study indicates that weak tie, trust, codified knowledge and collective teaching are positively associated with intragroup knowledge transfer. In contrast, strong tie, social knowledge and collective teaching are positively associated with inter-group knowledge transfer. In addition, a supplementary analysis was conducted to investigate interacting effects of knowledge complexity and some independent variables varied by communication patterns. According to analysis results, weak tie has a negative effect on the efficient knowledge sharing in an intra-group where the knowledge to be transferred is complex or non-codified; on the other hand, collective teaching and network density have negative impacts on knowledge transfer in an intergroup where complex knowledge is involved. These findings suggest that it is important to take into account a boundary condition or organizational boundaries in order to facilitate effective knowledge transfer.

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