This study attempts to examine the aspects, debated by modern historians in the U.S.A., of Tokugawa Japan. The academic foundation of Tokugawa Japan could be largely divided into two schools, namely the Norman line and the Reischauer line.
The Norman line, influenced by the Japanese Marxist ideology, argued that Meiji Japan was undemocratic with its roots in the Tokugawa period. As a result, they tended to have a negative view toward the Tokugawa period. On the other hand, the Reischauer line, based on the modernization theory, claimed that the Meiji period brought upon a successful development for modern society. This thesis resulted in a positive view that Tokugawa Japan must have had a precondition relating to modernization.
Although evaluated differently, both lines have recognized the existence of a link between the Tokugawa and the Meiji period. Therefore, the understanding of Tokugawa Japan seems to be determined by the evaluation of Meiji and what followed.
This Tokugawa (traditional society) -VS.-Meiji (modern society) contrast shows the approach in which the American academic circle analyzes the Tokugawa period. What is needed for a better understanding of Tokugawa Japan will be a constructive dialogue between the Norman line and the Reischauer.

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In the early 1960s the new leaders of Japan and the United States, Hayato Ikeda and John F. Kennedy, managed US-Japan security relations under the previously signed 1960 Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security. This paper attempts to examine the development of that relations.
Following the conclusion of the Cuban missile crisis in 1962, US-USSR relations stabilized. Western European countries, especially France, increased their sphere of action due to the decreased threat from the USSR. In the Eastern bloc, the conflict between the USSR and the People's Republic of China (PRC) grew more serious. Simultaneous détente in some areas, and multipolarization in other regions rendered Cold War alliances unstable.
In Asia, the situation was quite different. The United States felt exposed to the menace of the PRC, and the United States government believed that the crises in Southeast Asia, especially in Vietnam, were being instigated by the PRC. In addition, the PRC was in the process of building an atomic bomb. In such a situation, JFK felt the need to strengthen the US-Japan alliance, and urged Japan to help defend Asia from communism, not only economically but militarily as well. The president stated that for Japan to increase its military budget and strengthen its Self Defense Force (SDF) was of paramout importance.
The Japanese government believed that the United States exaggerated the threat from the PRC. However, Ikeda did try to meet the US demands because he believed the United States and Japan should cooperate very closely in order to counter communist aggression in Southeast Asia.
In defining the new defense build-up plan, Ikeda decided to increase the SDF faster than earlier envisaged. Within the new plan the goal for Ground Self Defense Forces (GSDF) would be 170, 000 troops. However, some in Ikeda's cabinet opined that GSDF troops should be increased to 180, 000 or the United States would complain. In the end the Ikeda Administration decided to increase troops to 180, 000. In short, this new scheme was initiated to deal with the demands the US placed on Japan in terms of “burden sharing.”
The Japanese government contributed in other ways as well. Within the military sphere, the United States reduced its own military assistance and introduced a “cost-sharing” system. Under this system, the Japanese government was obliged to increase its defense expenditures to procure new weapons form the United States. Moreover, the Japanese government supported the United States economically, by increasing financial assistance to Southeast Asia to prevent communist expansion in the region.
The Cold War in East Asia affected the development of the US-Japan Security System during the Ikeda-Kennedy era. In contrast to the European alliance, the foundations of the system were not shaken. While the rest of the world was in the process of multipolarizing, the US-Japan Security relations, fortified itself.

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